A review of measurements of air-surface exchange of reactive nitrogen in natural ecosystems across North America

Abstract

This review summarizes the state of the science of measurements of dry deposition of reactive nitrogen (Nr) compounds in North America, beginning with current understanding of the importance of dry deposition at the U.S. continental scale followed by a review of micrometeorological flux measurement methods. Measurements of Nr air-surface exchange in natural ecosystems of North America are then summarized, focusing on the U.S. and Canada. Drawing on this synthesis, research needed to address the incompleteness of dry deposition budgets, more fully characterize temporal and geographical variability of fluxes, and better understand air-surface exchange processes is identified.Our assessment points to several data and knowledge gaps that must be addressed to advance dry deposition budgets and air-surface exchange modeling for North American ecosystems. For example, recent studies of particulate (NO3−) and gaseous (NOx, HONO, peroxy nitrates) oxidized N fluxes challenge the fundamental framework of unidirectional flux from the atmosphere to the surface employed in most deposition models. Measurements in forest ecosystems document the importance of in-canopy chemical processes in regulating the net flux between the atmosphere and biosphere, which can result in net loss from the canopy. These results emphasize the need for studies to quantify within- and near-canopy sources and sinks of the full suite of components of the Nr chemical system under study (e.g., NOy or HNO3-NH3-NH4NO3). With respect to specific ecosystems and geographical locations, additional flux measurements are needed particularly in agricultural regions (NH3), coastal zones (NO3− and organic N), and arid ecosystems and along urban to rural gradients (NO2). Measurements that investigate non-stomatal exchange processes (e.g., deposition to wet surfaces) and the biogeochemical drivers of bidirectional exchange (e.g., NH3) are considered high priority. Establishment of long-term sites for process level measurements of reactive chemical fluxes should be viewed as a high priority long-term endeavor of the atmospheric chemistry and ecological communities.