Abstract
Lignans are polyphenolic compounds with a wide spectrum of biological functions including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic activities, therefore, there is an increasing interest in promoting the inclusion of lignan-rich foods in humans’ diets. Flaxseed is the richest source of the lignan secoisolariciresinol diglucoside—a compound found in the outer fibrous-containing layers of flax. The rumen appears to be the major site for the conversion of secoisolariciresinol diglucoside to the enterolignans enterodiol and enterolactone, but only enterolactone has been detected in milk of dairy cows fed flaxseed products (whole seeds, hulls, meal). However, there is limited information regarding the ruminal microbiota species involved in the metabolism of secoisolariciresinol diglucoside. Likewise, little is known about how dietary manipulation such as varying the nonstructural carbohydrate profile of rations affects milk enterolactone in dairy cows. Our review covers the gastrointestinal tract metabolism of lignans in humans and animals and presents an in-depth assessment of research that have investigated the impacts of flaxseed products on milk enterolactone concentration and animal health. It also addresses the pharmacokinetics of enterolactone consumed through milk, which may have implications to ruminants and humans’ health.
Highlights
Lignans are polyphenolic, phytoestrogenic compounds known to display a wide range of biological functions, including weak estrogenic and cardioprotective activities, as well as antiestrogenic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic properties [1,2,3]
Despite the growing knowledge regarding the impact of flaxseed supplementation on milk EL concentration in the last 10 years, little is known about how dietary manipulation affects the ruminal microbiome and EL production in dairy cows
Our review showed that flaxseed products, flaxseed meal (FM) and flaxseed hulls (FH) were effective in enhancing the concentration of EL in milk
Summary
Phytoestrogenic compounds known to display a wide range of biological functions, including weak estrogenic and cardioprotective activities, as well as antiestrogenic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic properties [1,2,3]. Despite the growing knowledge regarding the impact of flaxseed supplementation on milk EL concentration in the last 10 years, little is known about how dietary manipulation affects the ruminal microbiome and EL production in dairy cows. Weanling albino rats receiving 10% flaxseed (1.5 g/kg of body weight) during 14 d followed by a challenge with a toxin (i.e., carbon tetrachloride) known to downregulate the hepatic expression of antioxidant enzymes were able to restore the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) by 95, 182, and 136%, respectively, compared with the control treatment [23] These results are encouraging and open new opportunities to explore the use of flaxseed products or flaxseed-derived lignans as bioactive sources to mitigate oxidative stress in newborn, growing, and adult dairy cattle. We covered the metabolism of lignans in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals and the pharmacokinetics of milk EL consumed by newborn dairy calves, which may have implications to ruminants and humans’ health
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