Abstract
The Himalayan region is one of the most crucial mountain systems across the globe, which has significant importance in terms of the largest depository of snow and glaciers for fresh water supply, river runoff, hydropower, rich biodiversity, climate, and many more socioeconomic developments. This region directly or indirectly affects millions of lives and their livelihoods but has been considered one of the most climatically sensitive parts of the world. This study investigates the spatiotemporal variation in maximum extent of snow cover area (SCA) and its response to temperature, precipitation, and elevation over the northwest Himalaya (NWH) during 2000–2019. The analysis uses Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)/Terra 8-day composite snow Cover product (MOD10A2), MODIS/Terra/V6 daily land surface temperature product (MOD11A1), Climate Hazards Infrared Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS) precipitation product, and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) DEM product for the investigation. Modified Mann-Kendall (mMK) test and Spearman’s correlation methods were employed to examine the trends and the interrelationships between SCA and climatic parameters. Results indicate a significant increasing trend in annual mean SCA (663.88 km2/year) between 2000 and 2019. The seasonal and monthly analyses were also carried out for the study region. The Zone-wise analysis showed that the lower Himalaya (184.5 km2/year) and the middle Himalaya (232.1 km2/year) revealed significant increasing mean annual SCA trends. In contrast, the upper Himalaya showed no trend during the study period over the NWH region. Statistically significant negative correlation (−0.81) was observed between annual SCA and temperature, whereas a nonsignificant positive correlation (0.47) existed between annual SCA and precipitation in the past 20 years. It was also noticed that the SCA variability over the past 20 years has mainly been driven by temperature, whereas the influence of precipitation has been limited. A decline in average annual temperature (−0.039 °C/year) and a rise in precipitation (24.56 mm/year) was detected over the region. The results indicate that climate plays a vital role in controlling the SCA over the NWH region. The maximum and minimum snow cover frequency (SCF) was observed during the winter (74.42%) and monsoon (46.01%) season, respectively, while the average SCF was recorded to be 59.11% during the study period. Of the SCA, 54.81% had a SCF above 60% and could be considered as the perennial snow. The elevation-based analysis showed that 84% of the upper Himalaya (UH) experienced perennial snow, while the seasonal snow mostly dominated over the lower Himalaya (LH) and the middle Himalaya (MH).
Highlights
The elevation-based analysis showed that 84% of the upper Himalaya (UH) experienced perennial snow, while the seasonal snow mostly dominated over the lower Himalaya (LH) and the middle Himalaya (MH)
The analysis shows that the average annual mean snow cover area (SCA) from 2000 to 2019 was 19.5 × 104 km2, accounting for 58.8% of the entire study region
northwest Himalaya (NWH) region had snow cover frequency (SCF) of more than 90%, and most of that was in the UH (97.31%)
Summary
Snow cover is one of the most critical land surface parameters in global energy, the water cycle, and the development of the atmospheric boundary layer [1,2]. 2021, 13, 655 properties and radiation characteristics of snow cover can modulate the land-atmosphere interaction, ecosystem functions, and the biological factors at various scales [3,4,5]. Snow cover controls the global and regional climate and releases fresh water in the hydrological cycle [6]. It becomes more crucial for the river runoff, local water availability, and groundwater recharge that sustain millions of people’s lives and livelihoods [7,8]. Snowmelt variability may affect many sectors, such as hydropower, tourism, and agriculture [9,10,11]
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