A Qualitative Exploration of the Tertiary Education Experiences of Refugee and Asylum Seekers in Australia

This Campbell systematic review examines the impacts of on health, including mental health (PTSD, anxiety and depression), physical health and social functioning, of confining asylum seekers in detention centres. The review includes nine studies from the UK, Japan, Canada, and Australia. Detention has a negative impact on the mental health of asylum seekers. Levels of post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety both before and after release were found to be higher among asylum seekers who were detained compared to those who were not detained. The size of the effects were clinically important. All the studies assessed the mental health of the participants but none reported outcomes related to physical or social functioning. Executive summary/Abstract BACKGROUND The last decades of the twentieth century were accompanied by an upsurge in the number of persons fleeing persecution and regional wars. Western countries have applied increasingly stringent measures to discourage those seeking asylum from entering their country. The most controversial of the measures to discourage people from seeking asylum is the decision by some Western countries to confine asylum seekers in detention facilities. In most countries, the detention of asylum seekers is an administrative procedure that is undertaken to verify the identity of individuals, process asylum claims, and/or ensure that a deportation order is carried out. A number of clinicians have expressed concern that detention increases mental health difficulties in asylum seekers, who is already a highly traumatized population, and have called for an end to such practices. This is clearly in conflict with government policies aimed at reducing the numbers of asylum seekers. OBJECTIVES The main objective of this review is to assess evidence about the effects of detention on the mental and physical health and social functioning of asylum seekers. SEARCH STRATEGY Relevant studies were identified through electronic searches of bibliographic databases, internet search engines and hand searching of core journals. Searches were carried out to November 2013. We searched to identify both published and unpublished literature. The searches were international in scope. Reference lists of included studies and relevant reviews were also searched. SELECTION CRITERIA All study designs that used a well‐defined control group were eligible for inclusion. Studies that utilized qualitative approaches were not included. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS The total number of potential relevant studies constituted 11,376 hits. A total of nine studies, consisting of 12 papers, met the inclusion criteria and were critically appraised by the review authors. The final selection comprised nine studies from four different countries. Two studies reported on the same sample of asylum seekers in Australia at different time points after release. The nine studies thus analysed eight different asylum populations. Six studies (all analysing asylum seekers in Australia) could not be used in the data synthesis as they were judged to have too high risk of bias on the confounding item. Three studies were therefore included in the data synthesis. Meta‐analysis was used to examine the effects of detention on post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression and anxiety while the asylum seekers were still detained. Random effects models were used to pool data across the studies using the standardised mean difference. Pooled estimates were weighted using inverse variance methods, and 95% confidence intervals were estimated. It was not possible to perform a meta‐analysis after release as only one study providing data after release was included in the data synthesis. RESULTS Two studies provided data while the asylum seekers were still detained, and one study provided data less than a year after release. The total number of participants in these three studies was 359. We performed analyses separately for these time points. All outcomes were measured such that a negative effect size favours the detained asylum seekers, i.e. when an effect size is negative the detained asylum seekers are better off than comparison groups of non‐detained asylum seekers. The three studies used in the data synthesis were all non randomised studies and only one of them was judged to be of some concern on the confounding item of the risk of bias tool. Primary study effect sizes for PTSD, depression and anxiety while the asylum seekers were still detained lies in the range 0.35 to 0.99, all favouring the non‐detained asylum group. The weighted average effect sizes for PTSD and anxiety are of a magnitude which may be characterised as being of clinical importance: 0.45 [95% CI 0.19, 0.71] and 0.42 [95% CI 0.18, 0.66]. The weighted average effect size for depression is of an even higher magnitude: 0.68 [95% CI 0.10, 1.26]. All effects favour the non‐detained; i.e. there is an adverse effect of detention on mental health. The magnitude of the pooled estimates should however be interpreted with caution as they are based on two studies, and for depression there is some inconsistency in the magnitude of effect sizes between the two studies. One study reported outcomes (PTSD, depression and anxiety) after release and the magnitude of the effect sizes were all of clinical importance: 0.59 [95% CI 0.02, 1.17], 0.60 [95% CI 0.02, 1.17] and 0.76 [95% CI 0.17, 1.34]; all favouring the non‐detained asylum seekers. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS There is some evidence to suggest an independent adverse effect of detention on the mental health of asylum seekers. All studies used in the data synthesis reported adverse effects on the detained asylum seekers' mental health, measured as PTSD, depression and anxiety. The magnitude of the effect sizes lay in a clinical important range despite the fact that the comparison groups used in the primary studies faced a range of similar post‐migration adversities and had a more or less similar experience of prior traumatic events as the detained asylum seekers. Thus, the current evidence suggests an independent deterioration of the mental health due to detention of a group of people who are already highly traumatised. Adverse effects on the mental health were found not only while the asylum seekers were detained, but also after release suggesting that the adverse mental health effect of detention may be prolonged, extending well beyond the point of release into the community. The conclusions should however be interpreted with caution as they are based on only three studies. More research is needed in order to fully investigate the effect of detention on mental health. While additional research is needed, the review does, however, offer support to the view that the detention of already traumatised asylum seekers may have adverse effects on their mental health.

Objective: People seeking asylum are often marginalised in countries to which they have turned in search of safety from persecution. As global statistics are at historical high numbers, the aim of the present study is to gain an understanding of the needs and experiences of people seeking asylum in Australia through interviews with members of organisations working within the sector. Method: A convergent parallel mixed methods study design was used with 54 service providers completing an anonymous online survey and 16 additionally completing a semi-structured phone interview. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis, respectively. Results: Findings identified complex, widespread challenges faced by people seeking asylum, including extensive barriers to accessing resources and supports addressing basic needs. Best practice service delivery was described as collaborative, flexible, and integrated. Strengths and the resources of people seeking asylum included contributions made to the broader society, high motivation to positively contribute, and the skills and personal qualities they brought to the community. Conclusions: Data described the immense challenges faced by people seeking asylum in the Australian context. Recommendations are provided on effective service delivery through community-led and person-centred services supporting individual strengths, capacity, and dignity in the process of seeking asylum. Key Points What is already known about this topic: Global rates of forced migration are at historically high numbers in recent years. The impacts of experiences when seeking asylum can have profound and long-term effects on individuals exercising this internationally recognised human right. There are significant barriers to accessing services for people seeking asylum in Australia. What this research adds: There are complex and extensive needs experienced in the lengthy and uncertain period of time in which people’s applications for asylum are being determined, with feelings of uncertainty about the future nearly always a stress for most people seeking asylum. The Australian service sector for people seeking asylum proposed best practice models of service delivery that are community-led and person-centred services, which support individual strengths, capacity, and dignity in the process of seeking asylum. Information about the challenges faced by people seeking asylum and service providers’ account of the models that work within this sector provide useful information for stakeholders.

Public and political claims about the employment of people from a refugee background in Australia do not always reflect the research findings in this area. For example, recent claims by a senior Coalition Government Minister about people seeking asylum who arrived to Australia by boat during the previous Labor Government’s terms in office (2007-13) posit that many have limited employment prospects. However, given there is little research or government reporting on the experiences of asylum seekers who arrived during this time, and none that focuses specifically on their employment, there is no evidence to support this. A review of research on the employment experiences of people from a refugee background, and Australian policies, suggests a more nuanced picture. This includes research that found while initially people from a refugee background are more likely to be unemployed, have temporary jobs and lower incomes than other newly arrived immigrants, over the longer term second-generation refugees have higher levels of labour market participation than the general population and refugees and their families make significant economic and community contributions to Australia. Research also highlights that refugees may experience a range of barriers to accessing employment, including discrimination, and a review of Australian policies indicates these are likely to have exacerbated some of these barriers for asylum seekers who arrived to Australia by boat. In addition, given previous findings that public attitudes can be influenced by representations made in public and political discourses, the public statements of senior Ministers may be further deepening barriers to accessing employment faced by asylum seekers who arrived by boat.

Negotiating integration: Refugees and asylum seekers in Australia and the UK

Andersen's behavioural model of healthcare utilization is one of the most commonly used frameworks for help-seeking across a broad range of health areas, including oral health. The Model has been used in a wide range of previous studies to explore and understand oral health service use among both general populations and ethnic minorities. However, no research has explored its utility in understanding refugees' and asylum seekers' oral health help-seeking. As such, this study aimed to improve understanding of Middle Eastern refugees' and asylum seekers' oral health help-seeking and to determine the utility of Andersen's Model in this context. Interviews were conducted with 26 participants: 20 refugees and asylum seekers, and six oral health practitioners. Results were analysed using thematic analysis. The results indicated that systemic barriers were of particular concern for refugees and asylum seekers in relation to oral healthcare access. Other components supported previous research concerning the domains of the Model, with additions in relation to acculturation and previous experiences of dental care either in home or resettlement contexts. Overall, this study highlights the need for a tailored approach to understanding oral health help-seeking for refugees and asylum seekers, who have particular dental care needs. Resettlement policies should consider system-level barriers to accessing dental services when considering access to health services more generally for refugees and asylum seekers.

As refugee and asylum seeker numbers increase in Australia, their effective integration into society is facilitated by inclusion in social, economic and community life. This systematic review of the literature explored community-based programs that contribute to inclusion and social participation of refugees and asylum seekers in Australia. Four scholarly databases were searched for articles published between 2007 and 2017 resulting in five articles which met inclusion criteria. Although the studies identified were of variable quality, the findings suggest a number of factors that facilitate program effectiveness. These included where: (a) English language and communications skills were considered; (b) programs built on refugees’ own skills and experience prior to resettlement; (c) volunteers and mentors were involved; and (d) participants engaged in diverse projects that enabled new connections. The review highlights the paucity of well-researched interventions that build social inclusion of refugees and asylum seekers in Australia. Emerging evidence suggests that community-based programs can positively increase social inclusion and connectedness amongst refugees and asylum seekers. Additional well-designed programs and evaluation of such programs are needed to better understand and identify effective interventions targeting social inclusion of refugees and asylum seekers.

Alternative Places of Detention (APODs) are a new way of detaining asylum seekers in Australia. The establishment of APODs creates a new formal structure of belonging in Australia which challenges everyday practices of belonging and senses of belonging at the local and national scale. This paper examines practices of belonging which emerged following the establishment of the Inverbrackie APOD in Woodside, South Australia. Using a critical discourse analysis approach, informed by the insights of theories of performativity, this research explores the competing stories of two broadly defined groups (opponents and supporters of Inverbrackie) engaged in a dialogue about asylum seekers, refugees, immigration detention and belonging. While opposition to the APOD was vocal and frequent in the lead-up to the establishment of the detention centre, once the Inverbrackie APOD became operational opponents’ voices began to fade. On the other hand, supporters continued to say things—and more importantly continued to do things—to nurture belonging for asylum seekers in Inverbrackie, Woodside, and Australia.

Recent research has highlighted the importance of differential attribution of uniquely human characteristics in dehumanization and prejudice. Relatively little is known, however, about the importance of perceiving dissimilarities between the ingroup and outgroup in different types of values (beyond prosocial values), or the role of preference for consistency (PFC). This study investigated values, perceived dissimilarities in values, and PFC, in dehumanization of and prejudice toward asylum seekers in Australia. Results from a survey of 140 Australians revealed a strong relationship between dehumanization and prejudice. Individuals with stronger conservation and self‐enhancement values, and greater perceived dissimilarity to asylum seekers on self‐transcendence and self‐enhancement values, dehumanized asylum seekers more and were more prejudiced toward them. The relationships between perceived self‐transcendence and self‐enhancement dissimilarities and prejudice were mediated by dehumanization, whereas PFC moderated the relationship between conservation value differences and dehumanization. These findings offer important insight into the conditions that promote dehumanization and prejudice, which may in turn help explain the negative perceptions of asylum seekers in Australia. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

After up to 10 years of living as asylum seekers in Australia it appears that most of 1650 East Timorese will be granted permanent residency. The present study describes research into the wellbeing of East Timorese women asylum seekers that found severe risks to social and emotional wellbeing associated with prolonged asylum seeker status. The research findings highlighted a need for measures to protect the wellbeing of asylum seekers during the assessment stage of applications for protection visas. The author refers to the research findings to encourage debate around the need for asylum seekers generally to have access to resettlement services as a policy strategy to provide necessary psychological and material support. Arguing that neglect of basic assistance during the assessment phase of protection applications potentially breaches the UN Declaration, the author illustrates individual, community and global benefits of providing adequate support and avenues for personal development to asylum seekers.

Social structures are intangible forms of human organisation in which people's everyday lives occur. They are therefore integral to understanding human experiences. Australia's policy context is a social structure that excludes asylum seekers from conditions that would fulfil their human rights. This research, using constructivist grounded theory methods, aims to understand the mechanisms through which Australia's policies contribute to the everyday life experiences of people seeking asylum in Australia. Participant observations took place in one detention centre and across two organisational settings in the community. Asylum seekers and those who work with them participated in informal key-informant interviews, formal semi-structured interviews, and surveys. Particular policy documents were reviewed, selected on their applicability to asylum seekers and their relevance to asylum seeker statuses. The ‘Structural-Personal Interaction Process’ was identified through analysis of the data. It illustrates interactions between structures (status and policy), and human beings (personal characteristics) to create human experiences. This process uses the participants’ language, which differs from human rights language. It explains how asylum seekers are assigned a status that determines relevant policies, which in turn, shape the situations that they encounter. These situations interact with individual personal characteristics to contribute to human experiences. Policies and situations that harm and protect asylum seekers are identified. Human experiences that result from the Structural-Personal Interaction are distributed along a continuum that spans from suffering (mental distress and having ‘nothing to do’) through to wellbeing (feeling hopeful, feeling safe, and 'having something to do'), referred to in this thesis as the suffering-wellbeing continuum. Drawing on this empirical analysis and existing theories, conceptualisations of suffering, wellbeing, harming, and protecting are explored. Mechanisms through which policies affect asylum seekers' everyday human experiences are considered in terms of emotional responses and engagement in meaningful activities. Each person's human experiences are unique, created out of an interaction between social structures and personal characteristics. Yet, a pattern of predominantly harming policies contribute to harming situations which are linked to a tendency for most asylum seekers' human experiences to lie in the suffering zone on the continuum, especially for people assigned the status 'person in detention'. This pattern illustrates the structural violence inflicted upon asylum seekers. Engagement in meaningful activities is a concept that flows from policy to human experience. The concept of engagement in meaningful activities embodies the human rights to engage in work, housing and privacy, education, welfare, freedom of movement, self-expression, an adequate standard of living, physical and mental health, dignity and freedom from cruel treatment, and participation in cultural life. Nonetheless, this research found that asylum seekers tend to have 'nothing to do'. The tendency for Australia's asylum seeker policies to be harming, contributing to harming situations, with asylum seekers' experiences lying predominantly in the suffering zone of the suffering-wellbeing continuum, provides a concrete example of how structural violence occurs. The Structural-Personal Interaction Process offers new insights into mechanisms through which status and policy structures contribute to situations that interact with asylum seekers personal attributes to shape their human experiences.

This study aimed to identify the factors that counsellors working with refugees and asylum seekers in Australia consider influence their wellbeing and effectiveness. Nine employees in counsellor roles were interviewed. Thematic analysis indicated that government policies and practices were the greatest challenge. Factors facilitating effectiveness and wellbeing included having clear values, being able to see results for the client, receiving organisational support, working in a positive organisational culture, and having the support of family and friends. Factors inhibiting wellbeing included personal pressure to exert change, counsellor experience, feeling alienated from the community, lack of supervision, unclear organisational guidelines, and organisational values not being upheld. Along with the reported negative impact, positive psychological transformation was also reported. Through reflection on their clients’ strengths and resilience, participants reported feeling inspired, with increased effectiveness and wellbeing rather than vicarious trauma. This research contributes to the discussion about the psychologically harmful effects of government refugee and asylum seeker policy on counsellors and their clients.

The current research analyses interviews that were conducted with nine specialist practitioners who worked with asylum seekers in Australia. It investigates the aspects in which the Australian asylum legislative framework impacts on therapeutic work with asylum seekers. Epistemologically, the research is grounded in a social constructionist theoretical foundation that is interested in unravelling how discourses and language construct psychological reality. The interviews were analysed by following thematic analysis. The findings of the study reveal that participants recognise that the political discourses on asylum are forcefully dominant and rigid and generate detrimental effects on asylum seekers’ mental health. Likewise, they demonstrate that political discourses inform the therapeutic relationship between practitioner and client in a negative fashion and often produce an experience of professional impotence for practitioners who work with this population.

The education of students from refugee and asylum seeker backgrounds is an international concern. It calls for inspired teachers, sensitive interventions, and informed leadership. This writing discusses the views of students, teachers, general staff, parents, and the principal of a primary school in regional New South Wales, Australia regarding the sense of belonging that is so critical to the very diverse school culture. It is intended to inform and challenge others engaged in school leadership to reflect on their strategies and policies for welcoming students with refugee and asylum seeker status into their communities. It details the strategies and perspectives planned by one principal and his staff to provide an authentically inclusive environment for refugee and asylum seeker students in an already fractured community. Working with the principles of the components of the SCARF model, status, certainty, acceptance, relatedness, and fairness, originally designed as a collaborative workplace model, the principal adopted this model to guide the creation of unique, social justice-focussed school ethos and culture in a dominantly white education system and local culture. The data from the participants is recorded in their own words and includes comments from refugee parents and their children. This study provides evidence of the need for strategic planning for inclusion and the importance of perspectives, which acknowledge the vulnerabilities and difficulties of these communities whilst also interacting and developing relationships of human dignity and respect.

ObjectiveIn recent years, there has been a rise in the number of people seeking asylum in Australia, resulting in over‐crowded detention centres in various parts of the country. Appropriate management and assistance of asylum seekers has been an issue of major sociopolitical concern. In mid‐2012, the Australian ruling government introduced a “first of its kind” community placement initiative, which involved relocating low‐risk asylum seekers from detention centres to homes of those Australian families who volunteered for this programme. The present study investigated host families' motivations for volunteering into this scheme and their resulting experiences.MethodA total of 24 men and women from all over Australia were interviewed in person or over the telephone.ResultsConsistent with theoretical frameworks of altruism, acculturation, and intergroup contact, thematic analysis indicated that participants' interest in diversity/humanitarian issues were major factors that motivated them to host asylum seekers. Language and cultural barriers were reported as challenges, but generally, participants found the experience positive and rewarding.ConclusionThe initiative was regarded as an excellent avenue of learning about new cultures. The hosts played a strong role in promoting the English language proficiency and intercultural settlement of the asylum seekers. The scheme was considered as one way of diffusing fear/biases against asylum seekers prevalent among the Australian community at large. Participants also provided suggestions to improve the scheme.

It is highly important for asylum seekers who leave their country because of social instability and conflict to hold on where they have been and to include in the local society. Because asylum seekers meet with the difficulty of adapting to a new environment about which they are not informed. One of the most basic reasons of these difficulties is the lack of language skills. This study aims to put forward the impact of internet and social media usage of asylum seeker students in adaptation process into Turkish language skills. The study has been carried out with a qualitative method. In the election process of the participants criterion sampling method has been used. As the data collection tool semi structured interview form has been used. Semi structured detailed interviews have been made with nine Iraqi asylum seeker students studying in various secondary education institutions, the data have been analysed with descriptive analysis method. At the end of the study it has been determined that internet and social media present new learning opportunities and contribute to Turkish students importantly such as Turkish vocabulary development, listening, reading comprehension, correspondance, amendment the pronunciation and increasing academic skills. These language competences have been determined to support students‘ cope with difficulties, participation in social life more actively and their adaptation process in a new society importantly. Hence internet and social media are both a learning and an information acquire sources in both acquiring language skills and in adaptation processes. Contrary to researhes indicating social media’s avoiding to communicate with local media and unwilling by adaptation small, closed asylum seeker groups are made up of this research indicate asylum seekers establish these connections via both one to one and in-group interactions. In recent years in social media settings there is an increasing interest on asylum seekers’ usage of dygital technology. Asylum seekers get benefit of medium such as internet and social media enabling themselves to set up a living area to be enough for themselves and enabling them to include in the society in target country where they begin a new life and help them to solve problems. Studies dealing asylum seekers victim of compulsory migration usage of internet and social media on their lives is limited. This study is thought to contribute to fill the gap in its field.