Abstract
Fabric phase sorptive extraction (FPSE) combines the advanced material properties of sol–gel derived microextraction sorbents and the flexibility and permeability of fabric to create a robust, simple and green sample preparation device. It simultaneously improves the extraction sensitivity and the speed of the extraction by incorporating high volumes of sponge-like, porous sol–gel hybrid inorganic–organic sorbents into permeable fabric substrates that are capable of extracting target analytes directly from both simple and complex aqueous sample matrices. For the first time, this technique was applied to the trace-level determination of selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in environmental water samples using a non-polar sol–gel C18 coated FPSE media. Several extraction parameters were optimized to improve the extraction efficiency and to achieve a high detection sensitivity. Validation tests of spiked samples showed good linearity for four selected PAHs (R2 = 0.9983–0.9997) over a wide range of concentrations (0.010–10 ng/mL). Limits of detection (LODs) and quantification (LOQs) were measured at pg/mL levels; 0.1–1 pg/mL and 0.3–3 pg/mL, respectively. Inter- and intra-day precision tests showed variations of 1.1%–4.1% for four selected PAHs. Average absolute recovery values were in the range of 88.1%–90.5% with relative standard deviations below 5%, surpassing the values predicted by the recovery prediction model. Finally, the developed FPSE-HPLC-FLD protocol was applied to analyze 8 environmental water samples. Out of four selected PAHs, fluoranthene (Flu) and phenanthrene (Phen) were the most frequently detected in four samples, at concentrations of 5.6–7.7 ng/mL and 4.1–11 ng/mL, respectively, followed by anthracene (Anth) and pyrene (Pyr) in two samples. The newly developed FPSE-HPLC-FLD protocol is simple, green, fast and economical, with adequate sensitivity for trace levels of four selected PAHs and seems to be promising for routine monitoring of water quality and safety.
Highlights
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are toxic, carcinogenic and mutagenic organic compounds, and can exert immunologic and reproductive effects
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous in nature and the most damaging such as forest and prairie fires, volcanic eruptions and anthropogenic inputs, such as oil spills, waste pollutants with regard to the ecosystem [1,2,3,4,5]
The four selected small, low molecular weight PAHs are in the list of 16 priority PAHs designated by USEPA [1] and are source markers in water with diagnostic ratios for discriminating petrogenic from pyrolytic sources [27], a model substrate for cancer studies [21], and the PAHs most detected in the highest concentrations in drinking water [49]
Summary
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are toxic, carcinogenic and mutagenic organic compounds, and can exert immunologic and reproductive effects They are introduced into the environment from both natural and anthropogenic sources, typically formed as unintentional byproducts of the incomplete combustion of organic matter. PAHs are ubiquitous in nature and the most damaging such as forest and prairie fires, volcanic eruptions and anthropogenic inputs, such as oil spills, waste pollutants with regard to the ecosystem [1,2,3,4,5] They have low water solubility and exist in incineration, and asphalt oil refining, aluminum production, urban thecoke environment at veryproduction, low concentrations, PAHs are strongly bioaccumulative (e.g., byrunoff, fish) andemissions can, pass up the food chain to are top predators,
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