Abstract
Recently due to air pollution concerns, a large number of electric vehicles have been integrated into the electric distribution system. However, the uncoordinated charging of this technology can cause different voltage issues. This paper proposes a two-stage optimization approach with active and reactive power control to coordinate electric vehicles with both grid-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-grid capabilities to satisfy both grid requirements and electric vehicle prosumer requirements. The system requirements considered are voltage deviation and unbalance and the electric vehicle prosumer requirements considered are minimization of charging and battery degradation costs. The coordination problem is formulated as an optimization problem, where the first stage objectives are: minimization of voltage unbalance, customer charging and battery degradation costs. The first stage optimization problem is solved using the meta-heuristic optimization algorithm known as particle swarm optimization to obtain an optimized real power schedule for the electric vehicles. The second stage is then solved of which the objective is to minimize the bus voltage deviation and provides the reactive power schedule for electric vehicles. All the analyses were carried out on the IEEE 34 bus distribution system and the study results show that the proposed method allows prosumers to charge at a minimum cost without any grid voltage unbalance factors and under/over voltage problems under different scenarios. Thus, this work can be beneficial for system operators or electric vehicle aggregators to create a day-ahead schedule.
Highlights
This case study analyzes the performance of different methods for different penetration levels
The revenue savings from the charging costs and the reward from V2G far outweigh the battery degradation costs with the proposed method
The results from the case study under different electric vehicle (EV) penetration levels show that the voltage deviation problem gets worse when EV penetration ranges from 30% to 100% in uncoordinated charging, and the voltage unbalance problem get worse when EV penetration ranges from 75% to 100% with uncoordinated charging
Summary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. CO2 emission has been a major public concern due to its serious environmental impact, of which major sources are industries and the fossil fuel-dependent transportation sector. The electric vehicle (EV) is an empirically-proven technology that can alleviate dependency on the excessive use of oil and can help to decrease CO2 intensity and gasoline consumption [1]. There is a growing trend in many countries, especially in residential and commercial areas, for the use of EVs [2]. The increasing number of EVs cause a high demand for electricity, which can have detrimental impacts on existing power systems
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