Abstract
Clays attributed to have medicinal properties have been used since prehistoric times and are still used today as complementary medicines, which has given rise to unregulated “bioceutical” clays to treat skin conditions. Recently, clays with antibacterial characteristics have been proposed as alternatives to antibiotics, potentially overcoming modern day antibiotic resistance. Clays with suggested antibacterial properties were examined to establish their effects on common wound-infecting bacteria. Geochemical, microscopical, and toxicological characterization of clay particulates, their suspensions and filtered leachates was performed on THP-1 and HaCaT cell lines. Cytoskeletal toxicity, cell proliferation/viability (MTT assays), and migration (scratch wounds) were further evaluated. Clays were assayed for antibacterial efficacy using minimum inhibitory concentration assays. All clays possessed a mineral content with antibacterial potential; however, clay leachates contained insufficient ions to have any antibacterial effects. All clay leachates displayed toxicity towards THP-1 monocytes, while clay suspensions showed less toxicity, suggesting immunogenicity. Reduced clay cytotoxicity on HaCaTs was shown, as many leachates stimulated wound-healing responses. The “Green” clay exhibited antibacterial effects and only in suspension, which was lost upon neutralization. pH and its interaction with clay particle surface charge is more significant than previously understood to emphasize dangers of unregulated marketing and unsubstantiated bioceutical claims.
Highlights
The role of clays in medicine is well-documented, including detoxification, dermatitis, hair growth, gastro-intestinal tract, and irritable bowel syndrome, renal health, bone mass loss, and even cancer treatments
The remaining 2 mL containing the clay particle sediment was retained for use in EM, whereas the filtered 8 mL was utilized for ICP-MS
Grain size and morphology was established by standard error of the mean (SEM) and TEM
Summary
The role of clays in medicine is well-documented, including detoxification, dermatitis, hair growth, gastro-intestinal tract, and irritable bowel syndrome, renal health, bone mass loss, and even cancer treatments. By the selective pressure of antibiotic exposure in medicine and animal husbandry, have developed resistance to multiple front line and last resort antimicrobials [1,2,3,4,5] These so called “ESKAPE” pathogens (e.g., Enterococcus faecium, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli) are commonly associated with increasing multi-drug resistance and virulence, and often inhabit chronic wounds, cuts or other cutaneous injuries that have not healed three months post-injury [6]. Biomolecules 2021, 11, 58 and persistent inflammation and lack of response to reparative stimuli, culminating in impaired wound closure and a failure to reinstate skin barrier function [7,8,9,10,11] For sufferers with such wounds, the consequences can be significant, with real loss of quality of life for patients and their families
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