A new case for promoting wastewater reuse in Saudi Arabia: Bringing energy into the water equation

<p>The worldwide operating petroleum industry is considered as one of the major contributors to global anthropogenic methane emissions. However, not only absolute numbers of methane emissions from oil and natural gas production and distribution vary greatly in different global inventories, also the relative contribution of the oil and the gas sector is under discussion. In different studies, the majority of methane emissions are assigned either to natural gas or to the oil sector. For the climate emission origins are of course irrelevant, however, for the climate budget of natural gas usage it is important to know which emissions are attributable to natural gas and what number is related to oil production with its associated natural gas.</p><p>Here we use the Federal Institute of Geosciences and Natural Resources’ (BGR) worldwide database on natural oil and gas production and consumption, dating back to 1900, and compare it to global bottom-up methane emission inventories. We will present and discuss several regression approaches that fit the global data reasonably well. In addition, methane emissions of country groups are compared to natural oil and gas production and consumption data. This study finds that the emission factors that relate to gas production released during oil and gas extraction likely vary over the time and across different production areas in the world.</p>

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Does the shale gas boom change the natural gas price-production relationship? Evidence from the U.S. market

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Saudi Arabia has about 3% of the total world reserves of natural gas. The total annual production of natural gas in Saudi Arabia is about 32 billion cubic meters. Most of this production is from associated gas to the crude oil production. It is also produced from gas fields such as Dammam, Hamur, Jawb, Lawhah, Maharah, Marjan, Shaybah, Zuluf, Abqaiq, Berri, Ghawar, Kidan and Qatiaf. In the past, associated gas were directly flared with little uses as fuel mainly in domestic appliances. It sometimes injected into oil reservoirs to help in oil production. It is often used in industrial purposes either as a source of energy in electricity generation, refinery fuel or in lime or fertilizer manufacturing. Nowadays, natural gas is considered the backbone of many petrochemical industry in the country. This paper will review the current utilization of Saudi natural gas with an insight look toward the brightful future.

Security of natural gas supply to consumers in Ukraine and Poland in the face of open Russian military aggression in 2022 (comparative study).
 Military operations, including Russian attacks on natural gas production sites controlled by Ukraine and network restrictions, have led to a 7 % year- on-year decline in natural gas production and the temporary loss of natural gas access for hundreds of thousands of Ukrainian consumers. In 2022, 18,5 bcm of natural gas is likely to have been produced. The autumn suc- cesses on the frontline allowed Ukraine to start clearing damage on reco- vered territories and increase the number of new drillings.
 The extensive damage to companies using natural gas in production that was caused by Russian attacks and the scale of emigration reduced natural gas consumption in Ukraine by a quarter. Nevertheless, imports were ne- cessary. It was most profitable for the government in Kyiv to bypass transit costs and buy part of the natural gas supplied from Russia via Ukraine to the EU.
 Due to the cost of transit, a smaller part of the gas acquired by Ukraine was from other countries (e.g. Norway). The amount of natural gas (owned and owned by foreign companies) in storage in Ukraine at the end of October was 14,2 bcm. In the end, from its western partners Ukraine probably im- ported a total of only 1,5 bcm. Likely, some of the natural gas owned by foreign counterparties stored in Ukrainian storage facilities was purchased. As of 2021, the demand for Polish customers was lower than for Ukrainian needs. According to preliminary data, some 16,15 bcm of natural gas was sent to Polish consumers in 2022. Probably mainly due to the authorities’ protective moves towards households, natural gas transmission to domestic consumers in Poland fell by only less than 17,5 % compared to 2021. Indus- trial use of natural gas has decreased more.
 The Polish authorities have completed many investments (or made progress in this area) in natural gas infrastructure long postulated by experts. The degree of depletion of deposits and the high capital intensity of natural gas exploration and production requires a significant increase in investment in natural gas exploration and production to stop the further decline in natural gas production in both countries.

This concise overview of Russian oil and gas policy and activities comes from an independent research report to the US Congress by Bernard A. Gelb, specialist in industry economics, resources, science, and industry division, Congressional Research Service, the Library of Congress. This is a slightly abridged, unreferenced version, but the specific discussion of US interests has been left unedited. All photos in this article are from the major ongoing Sakhalin-1 project in the Russian Far East. The Russian Federation is a major player in world energy markets. It has more proven natural gas reserves than any other country and is among the top 10 countries in proven oil reserves. It is the world’s largest exporter of natural gas, the second largest oil producer and exporter, and the third largest energy consumer. Oil and gas reserves and production Most of Russia’s 60-72 billion barrels of proven oil reserves are located in Western Siberia, between the Ural Mountains and the Central Siberian Plateau. This ample endowment made the Soviet Union a major world oil producer in the 1980s, reaching production of 12.5 million barrels per day (bbl/d) in 1988. Roughly 25% of Russia’s oil reserves and 6% of its gas reserves are on Sakhalin Island in the far eastern region of the country, just north of Japan. Russian oil production, which had begun to decline before the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, fell more steeply afterward - to less than six million bbl/d in 1997 and 1998. State-mandated production surges had accelerated depletion of the large Western Siberian fields and the Soviet central planning system collapsed. Russian oil output started to recover in 1999. Many analysts attribute this to privatization of the industry, which clarified incentives and shifted activity to less expensive production. Increases in world oil prices, application of technology that was standard practice in the West, and rejuvenation of old oil fields helped boost output. After-effects of the 1998 financial crisis and subsequent devaluation of the ruble may well have contributed. After reaching about nine million bbl/d in 2004 depending upon the estimating source, Russian oil production continued to rise in 2005, but only slightly. Several consortia have begun producing and exporting oil (mainly to East Asia at present) from Sakhalin island. They also plan to export gas to the US via pipelines to the Siberian mainland and then from liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminals. With about 1700 trillion cu ft (tcf), Russia has the world’s largest natural gas reserves. In 2004, it was the world’s largest natural gas producer and the world’s largest exporter. However, its natural gas industry has not done as well as its oil industry in recent years, as production has increased only a little and exports only have re-attained their level of the late 1990s. Growth of Russia’s natural gas sector has been impaired by ageing fields, near monopolistic domination over the industry by Gazprom (with substantial government holdings), state regulation, and insufficient export pipelines. Gazprom, Russia’s 51%-owned state-run natural gas monopoly, holds more than one-fourth of the world’s natural gas reserves, produces nearly 90% of Russia’s natural gas, and operates the country’s natural gas pipeline network. The company’s tax payments account for around 25% of Russian federal tax revenues. Gazprom is heavily regulated, however. By law, it must supply the natural gas used to heat and power Russia’s domestic market at government-regulated below-mar-ket prices. Potential growth of both oil and natural gas production in Russia is limited by the lack of full introduction of the most modern western oil and gas exploration, development, and production technology.

Petroleum gases and liquids, often occurring together, are found in the same types of traps by the same exploratory methods and are exploited and produced in the same manner. Moreover, all crude oil contains some natural gas, but nearly 75% of all natural gases are not associated with crude oil in the reservoir. The two phases of petroleum are highly competitive. There are important differences in the physics and chemistry of natural gases and crude oil. Natural gases are a mixture of various organic compounds, usually accompanied by smaller amounts of inorganic elements and compounds. Natural gases of commerce are petroleum natural gases, although helium and hydrogen sulfide--also natural gases--may be valuable components. Even carbon dioxide, also a natural gas, finds markets. Physically, natural gases are highly mobile, difficult to contain, and are soluble in both crude oil and water, particularly under pressure. Chemically, there are marked differences between petroleum natural gases and crude oil. Methane is the simplest, most ubiquitous and principal component of petroleum natural gases. It is often accompanied by much smaller quantities of heavier hydrocarbons. Natural gases are alkanes: paraffinic, saturated, straight chain hydrocarbons. The division between petroleum natural gases and the somewhat more complex, heavier alkanes occurring with them as vapors, is between propane and butane. Butane and heavier paraffinic hydrocarbons can be found both as normal, saturated straight chain or as isomers: saturated, branched chain hydrocarbon compounds. The substantial chemical differences between the simple compounds of petroleum gases and the far more complex crude oils suggest somewhat differ nt modes of origin. An early and multiple origin for methane seems probable, inasmuch as substantial quantities are found in youngest Holocene sediments in swamps and glacial drift, and it is present as part of the atmosphere of several of the planets. The vastly different physical and chemical characteristics of petroleum gases and crude oil have a great bearing on economics of exploring for, developing and producing them. The phenomenal growth in production of natural gas and in its use as a form of primary energy has been a major factor in the declining growth in the need for crude oil. The two substances are directly competitive for space heating, for domestic uses, and for generation of electricity. Liquefied petroleum gases (natural gasolines) and lease condensate have further supplanted crude oil. Production of petroleum natural gases, wet, increased from 4,423 trillion BTU in 1945 to 20,121 trillion BTU in 1967, and in 1967 amounted to 36.4% (excluding lease condensate) of production of primary energy, compared to 32.6% fo crude oil (including lease condensate). Moreover, according to Winger et al., dry natural gas yields less than 4¢ of every dollar of income from a representative group of companies, the financial characteristics of which have been studied for years by the Chase Manhattan Bank. Although natural gas liquids and lease condensate add somewhat to this amount, natural gas is a much less attractive exploration objective than crude oil. Most natural gases have been found as a result of the search for crude oil. Under present economic conditions, natural gases alone are not attractive exploration objectives in most areas of the United States. Hence, as demand has continued to accelerate, drilling of gas wells has declined sharply, and ratio of annual production to annual additions to reserves has declined to a dangerous point. Unless this trend is reversed, the next few years may see a shortage of available natural gases--although none exists in nature--simply because of lack of incentive to search for and develop natural gases in the quantities which will be needed. End_of_Article - Last_Page 2209------------

The production of crude oil and natural gas is crucial for Qatar's economy as it supports its indicators of economic development. The gross domestic product (GDP) measures the value added by various economic sectors during a specific period and heavily relies on the surplus generated in Qatar's oil and natural gas sector for growth and development. It is projected that real GDP growth will range between 2% and 2.5% in 2023-2024, driven by strong domestic demand and the ongoing expansion in liquefied natural gas production. Inflation is expected to gradually decline to around 3%. In this study, we used a standardized approach to determine the impact of crude oil and natural gas production on Qatar's GDP. Our methodology involved analyzing data related to the production of crude oil and natural gas, as well as the gross domestic product (GDP) in Qatar. We then constructed a statistical and mathematical model that explains the long-term relationship between these variables. To establish the reliability of our model and interpret the relationship between the variables, we employed causal tests such as the Engle-Granger test and the vector autoregression (VAR) model. Through the response analysis of the model, we found a strong and statistically significant relationship between the production of crude oil and natural gas and Qatar's gross domestic product (GDP).

Israel—New natural gas producer in the Mediterranean

We present estimates of regional methane (CH4) emissions from oil and natural gas operations in the Barnett Shale, Texas, using airborne atmospheric measurements. Using a mass balance approach on eight different flight days in March and October 2013, the total CH4 emissions for the region are estimated to be 76 ± 13 × 10(3) kg hr(-1) (equivalent to 0.66 ± 0.11 Tg CH4 yr(-1); 95% confidence interval (CI)). We estimate that 60 ± 11 × 10(3) kg CH4 hr(-1) (95% CI) are emitted by natural gas and oil operations, including production, processing, and distribution in the urban areas of Dallas and Fort Worth. This estimate agrees with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimate for nationwide CH4 emissions from the natural gas sector when scaled by natural gas production, but it is higher than emissions reported by the EDGAR inventory or by industry to EPA's Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program. This study is the first to show consistency between mass balance results on so many different days and in two different seasons, enabling better quantification of the related uncertainty. The Barnett is one of the largest production basins in the United States, with 8% of total U.S. natural gas production, and thus, our results represent a crucial step toward determining the greenhouse gas footprint of U.S. onshore natural gas production.

Impacts of state tax and resource ownership policies on extraction: Evidence from U.S. natural gas production

This paper examines potential for natural gas production from geopressured Gulf Coast reservoirs production from geopressured Gulf Coast reservoirs whose thermal and mechanical energy production would be marginal or sub-marginal in relation to requirements for electricity generation. A base case evaluation with reservoir characteristics similar to those previously published for Frio Formation reservoirs in South Texas revealed reservoir criteria for producing natural gas to be much less stringent than for electricity generation. Parametric studies of cost for producing natural gas as the value of individual reservoir parameters is varied reveal maximum sensitivity to those parameters most difficult to quantify. These are effective in-situ permeability, pay zone thickness, reservoir drive and permeability, pay zone thickness, reservoir drive and drainage area. Potential significance of reservoir characteristics not reflected in the calculations are qualitatively discussed. These are the pressure dependence of compaction drive and permeability, the possibility of a gas drive due to gas trapped in pores as a result of relative permeability and the possibility of an increasing gas/water ratio due to expansion of the trapped gas resulting in finite permeability to natural gas. Introduction Several recent publications have suggested that an enormous natural gas resource base may exist in geopressured aquifers that parallel the Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coasts at depths below 800 feet. Early studies produced estimates for quantities of natural gas in-place as high as 26,000 trillion CF onshore and 49,000 trillion CF when offshore sandstone reservoirs were included. A substantial fraction of this natural gas was projected to be dissolved in water having a temperature in excess of 300 degrees F. Studies funded by the Geothermal Division of ERDA have concentrated primarily upon potential for electricity generation using the hydraulic and thermal energy produced. Natural gas production was considered to be a by-product. More recent publications have questioned whether the primary emphasis should be upon producing natural gas rather than electricity. producing natural gas rather than electricity. This report examines that issue in the context of the relationship between reservoir characteristics and wellhead cost for natural gas production. The range of quantitative values for input parameters was chosen by reviewing current literature and interviewing professionals now engaged either in relevant research professionals now engaged either in relevant research or in gas production from geopressured reservoirs. Interviews revealed a striking contrast in opinion regarding potential for resource development between individuals experienced in natural gas exploration in geopressured areas and individuals projecting production by computer simulation. In projecting production by computer simulation. In general, experienced natural gas exploration and production personnel were very pessimistic regarding production personnel were very pessimistic regarding the potential for geopressured reservoir development for geothermal energy and somewhat less pessimistic regarding natural gas production by stripping from a geopressured brine. This contrast with optimistic computer projections motivated examination of whether the quantitative values of reservoir characteristics and other inputs to prior computer simulations were truly descriptive of nature. COMPUTATION PROCEDURE Computations to examine the cost significance of various parameters employed an extension of the reservoir engineering techniques published by W.J. Bernard for a bounded, circular aquifer.

The natural gas sector has an important role in the Indonesian economy and sustainability. The decrease in natural gas production and reserves impacts sectors that require natural gas as input and support for production activities. This study analyzes the relationship between the natural gas sector

PurposeThis paper aims to analyze the context of community opinions and participation in the natural gas sector in developing countries, a case study of Tanzania. To achieve this purpose, the study pointed out six facts, namely, information on the natural gas sector; awareness of the natural gas-related policies; laws and regulations and the creation of employment opportunities; local experts in the natural gas sector; the use of natural gas revenues; and natural gas for poverty reduction and improvement of social well-being.Design/methodology/approachThe study is a systematic review of the literature on community participation based on the relevant studies published between 2010 and 2018. A comprehensive literature review was carried out following the seven-step model whereby relevant themes from different potential bibliographic databases such as Google Scholar were systematically selected, compiled and analyzed using descriptive methods.FindingsThe study revealed that despite the various efforts made by the governments and other stakeholders to promote community participation, there is an inadequate level of community participation in the natural gas sector in developing countries. There are limited local experts for natural gas operations and low transparency on natural gas contracts, agreements and revenues. Therefore, there is the need to raise awareness for a highly informed society with a clear sense of ownership of the natural gas wealth among the local communities. Moreover, transparency and accountability are recommended for the sustainable natural gas sector development.Originality/valueThis paper offers new and current cross-sectoral inclusion, opinions, hopes and concerns of the community on the natural gas sector management in developing countries.