Abstract
Faience objects produced from the fourth millennium BC in ancient Egypt are considered as the first high-tech ceramics in human history. Despite extensive studies on manufacturing technology, many aspects of this complex technology remain a mystery and there is no methodology in place to unravel the techniques of Egyptian faience object production. Detailed studies presented herein fill the gaps, verifying standing opinions and allowing certain aspects of faience manufacturing technology to be reconstructed. The object of this innovative investigation is a hemispherical faience bowl discovered by archaeologists excavating a Ptolemaic workshop district at the site of Tell Atrib in the southern Nile Delta. The multiproxy analysis included the application of specialised software and preparation techniques coupled with complementary methods of light and digital microscopy, SEM with EDS, XRD, STA with EGA, as well as image analysis. Sources of raw and accessory materials (mineral and organic binders, fluxes, colourants) used for preparing the silica paste and glaze slurry were determined. The results helped to reconstruct how the raw material was prepared and how faience vessels were made. The bowl was moulded by compression using a two-part mould. The moulded and dried bowl was then covered by glaze slurry using the application method. A synthetic colourant, Egyptian Blue, was probably used to colour the glaze. The item was fired once at a temperature of 1050–1150 °C. Oxidised conditions were maintained in the kiln during the firing process and firing at the maximal temperature was relatively short. Application of the multiproxy approach has shed light on the technological aspects of faience bowl manufacturing. The obtained results have confirmed the usefulness of the comprehensive methodology that was applied for the reconstruction of particular manufacturing stages of faience objects.
Highlights
The beginnings of faience manufacturing in ancient Egypt go back to the predynastic period in the fourth millennium BC
The glaze surface is covered by numerous oval depressions, 10 to 20 μm in diameter, and a network of canaliculi, which are visible at ×45 magnification and do not display any orientation (Figure 3e and Figure S2a,d)
Novel interpretation possibilities opened by the multiproxy approach have led to significant conclusions regarding technological aspects of the manufacturing technology
Summary
The beginnings of faience manufacturing in ancient Egypt go back to the predynastic period in the fourth millennium BC. The manufacturing techniques applied to these unique and exclusive items were modified and improved over the centuries, but significant technological development took place especially in the Hellenistic Period. Several generations of experience and a high level of technical skill were at the source of extremely beautiful faience objects which, were highly demanding as far as the manufacturing process is concerned. In the Ptolemaic Period, a plethora of different objects were produced, including vessels, figurines and ornamented items, often displaying complicated shapes and decoration. Relief-decorated hemispherical bowls are of particular interest. They are considered among the most advanced technologically faience objects from ancient Egypt
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