A Multi-Level Examination of National and Organizational Hurdles in Female Top Manager Appointments

Abstract

Taking an integrative approach, we examine the interplays of institutional origins of gender biases in top management appointment. Two biases are studied: glass ceiling bias (lower likelihood of women in leadership positions) and glass cliff bias (higher likelihood of women in precarious leadership positions). Based upon role incongruity and social identity theories, we test the hypotheses in 211 market-leading firms across 19 OECD countries from 1998 to 2014. As expected, we find that masculine national cultures and male TMT representation lower the likelihood of female appointment but poor firm performance increases it especially when male TMT representation is high. Overall, women in feminine countries can break the glass ceiling when male TMT representation and/or firm performance are low. In masculine countries, albeit reaching top leadership positions in crisis times, women face “concrete ceilings” thereafter, as their sporadic presence does not lead to further systematic breakthroughs.