A Location of Turkey among the European Union Countries in Terms of Inclusive Growth and Health Outcome Indicators

The European Union (EU) countries, as one of the most economically developed regions in the world, are taking increasingly decisive actions to reduce the emission of harmful substances into the natural environment. This can be exemplified by a new climate strategy referred to as “The European Green Deal”. Its basic assumption is that the EU countries will have achieved climate neutrality by 2050. To do so, it is necessary to make an energy transition involving the widest possible use of renewable energy sources (RES) for energy production. However, activities in this area should be preceded by analyses due to the large diversity of the EU countries in terms of economic development, the number of inhabitants and their wealth as well as geographical location and area. The results of such analyses should support the implementation of adopted strategies. In order to assess the current state of the energy sector in the EU and indicate future directions of activities, research was carried out to analyze the structure and volume of energy production from RES in the EU countries. The aim of the study was to divide the EU countries into similar groups by the structure and volume of energy production from RES. This production was compared with the number of inhabitants of each EU country, its area and the value of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This approach allows a new and broader view of the structure of energy production from RES and creates an opportunity to take into account additional factors when developing and implementing new climate strategies. The k-means algorithm was used for the analysis. The presented analyses and obtained results constitute a new approach to studying the diversified energy market in the EU. The results should be used for the development of a common energy and climate policy and economic integration of the EU countries.

Social expenditure plays an important role in European Union (EU) countries. It improves the lives of citizens whose welfare is endangered due to poverty or illness. However, social expenditure represents a considerable share of the budgets of EU member states. Despite evident similarities in their levels of development, EU countries show apparent differences in social expenditure levels. Therefore, this work aims to determine the similarities and differences between EU countries in this regard. The analysis uses clustering methods, such as hierarchical cluster analysis and the k-means, to divide countries into homogeneous groups. The research demonstrates significant differences between EU countries in the years 2008–2018, which resulted in a low number of objects (countries) in the identified groups. In the case of 6 out of 28 countries, it was not possible to assign them to any group. The research proves that EU countries should take more care when organising their social policy, taking into consideration cultural and social factors.

The analysis of similarities between the European Union countries in terms of the level and structure of the emissions of selected gases and air pollutants into the atmosphere

Enterprises seek for possibilities to limit the costs and for areas that stimulate the level of innovation. Both of these aspects can be effectively supported by application of cloud computing, without a simultaneous need to make a choice of a trade-off type. The aim of the article is to prove that cloud computing provides entrepreneurs with the possibility to limit the costs and at the same time to support their activities related to the selected direction of innovation development. It has both a direct influence on the level and structure of costs in the enterprise, as well as an indirect influence, e.g. related to shortening the time for introduction of new solutions to the market, making decisions or limiting the costs of projects.

This paper investigates differences and analogies among European Union (EU) countries concerning the links between agricultural activities and the impact on the environment. It analyses land use practices and agricultural production with two specific sets of indicators provided by the Eurostat database. Factor analysis is used to identify the key aspects of (un)sustainable agriculture and their relative importance. Hierarchical cluster analysis is then applied to classify the 28 EU countries into ‘homogeneous’ groups. The paper concludes that the countries from the centre and the north of the EU have similar agricultural practices and production methods with a high impact on the environment. Mediterranean EU countries and those in the north-west of the EU, instead, use traditional agricultural methods such as meadows and grazing livestock. This study could be useful for policymakers wanting to define tools aimed at guiding producers towards more sustainable production methods.

After Lithuanian’s accession to the European Union (EU) in 2004, the citizens of Lithuania gained one of the four freedoms of the EU: it is a freedom to move, work and live in another EU and European economic area (EEE) country. Now workers can live in one country and work in another, they can even work in more than one country. While Lithuanian business can look for specialist in another EU country if there are no any in Lithuania. Consequently the free movement of workers did effect on the Lithuanian business development and employment itself. During the economic crisis the unemployment rate started to grow in many EU countries. Especially youth unemployment appeared as one of major issues. For Lithuanian economy high unemployment rate was and still is a serious problem. The free movement of workers is a challenge not only for the Lithuanian citizens but for employers as well. According to the strategy Europe 2020, the mobility could be as a solution in reducing high unemployment, which was reached during the economic crisis. With reference to the above, it could be stated that balanced labour movement could play a significant role in boosting business development and employment in the EU and the EEE. The dissemination of information about legal regulations of free movement of workers takes an important place in this regard. Accordingly a network of consultants, the European Employment Services (EURES), initiated by the European Commission (EC) is highly focused to this issue. EURES is acting in all the members of the EU as well as EEE. EURES is responsible for information, advice and placement services for jobseekers and employers wishing to benefit from the principle of the free movement of persons. The network has its consultants in ten cities of Lithuania as well and it covers all main regions of the state. Considering the above mentioned, the article solves the scientific problem: how EURES network’s activities could impact employment and business development in the EU and Lithuania? The aim of this paper is to study peculiarities of legal regulations of free movement of workers in the EU and importance of EURES network’s activities as well as its relevance to employment and business development in the EU and Lithuania. To achieve this aim three tasks were solved: to present the main topicalities of employment and its relevance to business development in the EU and Lithuania; to analyse the legal aspects of free movement of workers in the EU; to highlight the main EURES network’s activities reducing unemployment in the EU and Lithuania. The paper presents a combination of several research methods: comparative analysis of Lithuanian and international scientific works; comparative analysis and interpretation of the EU legal documents, strategies and practical papers; comparative and explanatory analysis of secondary statistic data; the paper includes the case study of EURES network activities in Lithuania. The results of the article: there were presented the main topicalities of employment and its relevance to business development in the EU and Lithuania; there were highlighted the main legal aspects of free movement of workers in the EU; there were highlighted the main EURES network’s activities, reducing unemployment, balancing labour market and boosting business development in the EU and Lithuania by disseminating information about free movement of workers. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.eis.0.8.6972

The EU Response to COVID-19: From Reactive Policies to Strategic Decision-Making.

The purpose of the work is to study the issue of domestic exports of agricultural products to the European Union (EU). Methodology. General scientific economic and mathematical methods as analysis, synthesis, abstraction, concretization and special methods as comparison, tabular were used. Results. It is noted that an important step in terms of deepening trade relations between Ukraine and the EU was the conclusion of the Association Agreement and the establishment of a free trade area in the framework of this Agreement. For Ukraine, this is both one of the greatest achievements (in terms of shaping the worldview and social development) and a challenge (in terms of ensuring economic growth of the country, search for internal sources and incentives). It is noted that European guidelines provide the agricultural sector with an effective direction of development and reveal modern opportunities for its recovery, create additional preferences in the agri-food market. It is investigated that since the beginning of 2014 there have been dramatic changes in the geographical structure of domestic exports. Before that, about a quarter of goods were sent to the EU countries, about a third – to the markets of the CIS countries, the rest – to other countries. During 2014-2020, this distribution changed towards a significant decrease in the share of the CIS countries and a gradual increase in the share of the EU and other countries of the world. The article provides an analytical assessment of the geographical structure of Ukraine's merchandise exports by three main blocks of countries – the EU, the CIS and the rest of the world. The role and importance of the free trade area between Ukraine and the EU, which is a powerful milestone in bilateral trade relations and opens new economic opportunities for both the EU and Ukraine, is determined. The main trading partners of Ukraine in the export of goods are characterized. The geographical structure of exports with the EU countries is investigated and it is noted that Ukraine supplies goods to almost all EU countries. The total value of exports in 2020 decreased by 1552103 thousand US dollars compared to 2018. The largest share of exports falls on Poland, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain. The commodity structure of agricultural exports with the EU countries during 2018-2020 was studied, a significant share of agricultural products was noted, which ranges from 34%. Practical implications. The factors that influenced the formation of exports in 2020 are identified. The problems that affect the development of exports and the prospects for its increase are identified.

Sustainable development has become a major problem in European Union (EU) countries. This has prompted many researchers to examine a broad range of interactions among sustainable development indicators. This study uses the variance decomposition and cointegration approach to assess the causal relationship among energy consumption, CO2 emissions, and economic development (gross domestic product [GDP], foreign direct investment [FDI], net exports, and employment in industry) in the eight new and 15 old EU countries. The results confirm the existence of at least long‐run equilibrium relationships among economic growth and energy consumption, CO2, FDI, and net exports. In addition, short‐run bidirectional causality among GDP, energy consumption, and CO2 emissions is found for the old EU countries, whereas unidirectional causalities run from GDP to energy consumption and CO2 emissions in the new EU countries. Evidence from the variance decomposition analysis shows that 22% of the future shock in GDP is due to fluctuations in energy consumption, CO2, and employment in the old EU countries, whereas 53.1% emanates from CO2, employment, and FDI in the new EU countries. These findings have potentially important implications for sustainable development and environmental policy in both old and new EU countries.

Comparative demographics of the European cystic fibrosis population: a cross-sectional database analysis

The decrease in the level of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from industry and agriculture is one of the biggest challenges that European Union (EU) countries have to face. Their economic development should occur under the conditions of limiting the pressure on the environment. The agricultural and industrial sectors play a key role in ensuring food security, technological progress, job security, social well-being, economic competitiveness, and sustainable development. The main purpose of this article was to identify and compare the level, trends, and variability in greenhouse gas emissions from industry and agriculture in EU countries in 2010–2019, to create classes of countries with similar gas emissions, and to analyze the average values of their economic conditions. The original contribution to the article was to investigate whether there is a relationship between the level of greenhouse gas emissions and the economic development of countries and other economic indicators characterizing the sectors of industry and agriculture. Empirical data were obtained from the Eurostat and Ilostat databases. Basic descriptive statistics, classification methods, multiple regression, and correlation methods were used in the study. The industrial and agricultural sectors in EU countries emit similar amounts of greenhouse gases into the environment. In the years 2010–2019, the percentage share of emissions from these sectors in total gas emissions was growing dynamically, but no evidence was found indicating that those countries that emitted the most greenhouse gases significantly reduced their emissions in the decade under review. Moreover, EU countries are still significantly and invariably differentiated in this respect. Greenhouse gas emissions from industry and agriculture are influenced by the economic characteristics of these sectors, such as the level of GDP per capita, the scale of investment by enterprises, the expenditure on research and development, as well as employment in these sectors. The findings of this study show that total greenhouse gas emissions from all sources increase with countries’ economic growth, while a higher level of support of EU countries for research and development, and a greater share of employment in both industry and agriculture, translate into higher greenhouse gas emissions from these sectors. These conclusions may be useful for decision makers in developed and developing countries, as well as those in the industrial and agricultural sectors, in controlling and verifying the possible causes of greenhouse gas emissions in terms of the need to reduce their negative role on the environment and human health.

Renewable energy consumption in economic sectors in the EU-27. The impact on economics, environment and conventional energy sources. A 20-year perspective

Biosimilar filgrastims are primarily indicated for chemotherapy-induced neutropenia prevention. They are less expensive formulations of branded filgrastim, and biosimilar filgrastim was the first biosimilar oncology drug administered in European Union (EU) countries, Japan, and the U.S. Fourteen biosimilar filgrastims have been marketed in EU countries, Japan, the U.S., and Canada since 2008, 2012, 2015, and 2016, respectively. We reviewed experiences and policies for biosimilar filgrastim markets in EU countries and Japan, where uptake has been rapid, and in the U.S. and Canada, where experience is rapidly emerging. U.S. regulations for designating biosimilar interchangeability are under development, and such regulations have not been developed in most other countries. Pharmaceutical substitution is allowed for new filgrastim starts in some EU countries and in Canada, but not Japan and the U.S. In EU countries, biosimilar adoption is facilitated with favorable hospital tender offers. U.S. adoption is reportedly 24%, while the second filgrastim biosimilar is priced 30% lower than branded filgrastim and 20% lower than the first biosimilar filgrastim approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Utilization is about 60% in EU countries, where biosimilar filgrastim is marketed at a 30%-40% discount. In Japan, biosimilar filgrastim utilization is 45%, primarily because of 35% discounts negotiated by Central Insurance and hospital-only markets. Overall, biosimilar filgrastim adoption barriers are small in many EU countries and Japan and are diminishing in Canada in the U.S. Policies facilitating improved U.S. adoption of biosimilar filgrastim, based on positive experiences in EU countries and Japan, including favorable insurance coverage; larger price discount relative to reference filgrastim pricing; closing of the "rebate trap" with transparent pricing information; formal educational efforts of patients, physicians, caregivers, and providers; and allowance of pharmaceutical substitution of biosimilar versus reference filgrastim, should be considered. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: We reviewed experiences and policies for biosimilar filgrastims in Europe, Japan, Canada, and the U.S. Postmarketing harmonization of regulatory policies for biosimilar filgrastims has not occurred. Acceptance of biosimilar filgrastims for branded filgrastim, increasing in the U.S. and in Canada, is commonplace in Japan and Europe. In the U.S., some factors, accepted in Europe or Japan, could improve uptake, including acceptance of biosimilars as safe and effective; larger cost savings, decreasing "rebate traps" where pharmaceutical benefit managers support branded filgrastim, decreased use of patent litigation/challenges, and allowing pharmacists to routinely substitute biosimilar for branded filgrastim.

Before the full-scale кussian invasion in 2022, Ukraine was actively working to improve the investment climate and integrate into European economic structures. However, the war significantly changed the situation, posing new challenges for foreign investors. The purpose of the study is to analyze foreign investment and financial assistance to Ukraine by European Union (EU) countries under martial law, identify the main trends and challenges, and explore opportunities for attracting investment in strategic sectors of the Ukrainian economy. The study analyzed the dynamics of foreign direct investment (FDI) into Ukraine by countries around the world and the EU in 2015–2024. It was determined that the peaks of investment fell on 2019 and 2021, the outflow of capital investments – on 2015, 2020 (in general and from the EU) and 2022 (from the EU). In 2023–2024 there was a gradual recovery of foreign investment. The dynamics of FDI from EU countries had almost identical dynamics to their total volume, except for 2017. The share of FDI from EU countries in the total amount of FDI is extremely large – 76.91% in 2024. The largest total volume of FDI for 2022–2024 to Ukraine was observed from eight EU countries: Cyprus, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Austria, Poland, Hungary, Denmark. At the same time, the total volume of FDI from four EU countries for the same period was negative: Finland, Portugal, Slovakia, Germany. Taking into account the financial assistance to Ukraine in war conditions, the program of financial support to Ukraine from the EU for 2024–2027 in the amount of 50 billion euros – Ukraine Facility, which is aimed at supporting macro-financial stability, economic recovery, and reforming key sectors, was noted. Significant military assistance to Ukraine was provided by Germany, Poland, France, the Netherlands, Sweden, Italy, Denmark, Spain, and Finland.

Further positive social and economic development (SED) requires modelling and analysis for evaluating its results to ground directions for future development. The purpose of the paper is to study the problem of estimating of SED, to form the methodology for modelling its results and to create an aggregated econometric indicator within the framework of unified conceptual approach for the European Union (EU) countries. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following objectives: to determine the essence of the concept of SED, to study traditional approaches to measure SED, to give an overview of the DP2 modelling method, to discover and structure the elements of SED in the EU countries and to argue a conceptual approach to modelling its outcomes. The study is based on the method of mathematical modelling in economics based on Distance P2 method. Econometric modelling, as well as regression analyze, was used to develop a synthetic indicator DP2 for evaluating SED of the EU countries. Also, the research process was based on analysis, synthesis and the system approach for information processing, as well as on the method of comparative and statistical analysis, quality and quantity analysis. The results of the deep research showed that there is no unified approach to modelling SED. The Distance P2 method was first proposed to measure SED at the national level exactly for the EU. The methodology for measuring SED specifically for the EU countries based on the conceptual approach was developed and substantiated. Based on the proposed methodology and taking into account the special characteristics of the region studied - the social and economic DP2 indicator for the EU countries was created. This study proposes to build a synthetic indicator DP2 to model results of progress in SED, especially in the EU. The practical implications of the synthetic indicator DP2 for modelling and analysis of SED of the EU countries can be a prospect for further research. Applied aspect of these studies is advising the EU's public policy with the aim of advancing. Using the DP2 synthetic indicator of SED for the EU countries will identify and substantiate the main directions for developing the country's domestic policy to improve the quality of life of the populations. Also, the results of the study can be used for advisory purposes to develop and optimize the EU development strategy 2020-2030. The value and originality of the paper lie in further application of the methodology of modelling the SED of the EU countries through synthetic indicator DP2. This will expand opportunities for increasing the national economy’s efficiency, that is highly important in terms of increased international competition.