A hybrid life cycle assessment of the vehicle-to-grid application in light duty commercial fleet

Vehicle to Grid regulation services of electric delivery trucks: Economic and environmental benefit analysis

Reducing Emissions and Costs with Vehicle-to-Grid

As road transport is responsible for a major part of greenhouse gas emissions, broad diffusion of electric vehicles (EV), in combination with electricity generated from clean energy sources, can contribute to reducing overall CO2 emissions significantly. EV include plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) and range-extended electric vehicles (REEV) which still contain a combustion engine and, hence, do not restrict the user compared to conventional vehicles, as well as pure battery electric vehicles (BEV). BEV will be focused in this article, as the user behavior is affected considerably by a limited range and longer refueling times. However, with a current market penetration below 1 %, the impact of BEV is marginal. Although the sales figures of BEV are low all over the world, it will be pointed out in this article that the potential for diffusion and take-off of this new technology varies in different countries depending on some framework conditions like infrastructure and energy generation as well as on individual factors measured by surveys in the different countries. Hence, this study tries to compare market potentials for BEV in different countries in order to improve the knowledge basis for decisions of policy makers. Two Western countries, France and Germany, and one rapidly growing developing country, India, have been chosen. In the first step of our analysis, framework conditions are analyzed and compared, which influence societies' strategies as regards future developments of national passenger transport systems determining the future role of BEV. This step focuses on economic differences, greenhouse gas emissions, national EV promotion programs, differences in the underlying electric power system, as well as passenger car stock and vehicle (including motorized two-wheeler) registrations. The second step concentrates on the differences in user acceptance of BEV in the three different nations. Therefore, consumers' responses to internet questionnaires relating to BEV acceptance which were distributed in France, Germany and India were compared. With the help of variance analysis statistical differences of consumers' statements in the three countries are determined. The main result of the two-step analysis is that France currently has the biggest market potential for BEV, since the economic conditions and acceptance patterns in society are more beneficial for BEV than they are in Germany and India. While the individuals' BEV acceptance level seems to be comparably lower in Germany, Indian framework conditions negatively influence the diffusion of BEV. Thus, it seems advantageous to start promoting BEV in France, to focus on REEV and PHEV in Germany, and to neglect promoting policies for (four-wheel) EV in India in the next years. However, it seems necessary to support long-term diffusion of EV in India, considering the increasing sales figures of new vehicles and the corresponding challenges in Indian megacities.

Parametric analysis of technology and policy tradeoffs for conventional and electric light-duty vehicles

The promotion of new energy in light-duty vehicles (LDVs) is considered as an effective approach for achieving low-carbon road transport targets. In this study, life cycle assessment was performed for five typical vehicle models in Suzhou City (fourth largest LDV stock in China): internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV), hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), plug-in electric vehicle (PHEV), battery electric vehicle (BEV) and hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (HFCV). Their energy consumption, and greenhouse gas (GHG) and air pollutant emissions during vehicle and fuel cycles in 2020 were examined using the Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) model. GHG emission reduction potential of LDV fleet was projected under various scenarios for 2021-2040. The results showed that BEVs exhibited advantages for replacing ICEVs over HEVs, PHEVs and HFCVs, taking into account China's road electrification policy. The GHG emission intensity of BEVs in 2040 was estimated to be 19-34% of ICEVs in 2020, with a deep decarbonized electricity mix and improved vehicle efficiency. For the aggressive Sustainable Development Scenario, the GHG emissions of LDVs would peak before 2026, ahead of China's target by 2030, and the ~ 100% share of EVs in 2040 would result in a lower GHG emissions, equivalent to the 2010 level. It highlights the importance of early action, green electricity mix, and public transport development in reducing GHG emissions of large LDV fleet.

The most common question associated with battery-powered electric vehicle is: “How far can I get with the vehicle?” This question describes to the point the subconscious fear of potential buyers of being stranded one day with their vehicle with an empty battery. With electric vehicles, people constantly have to make choices: “warm feet, cool head, or getting there?” This is due to the fact that the energy that must be provided for the vehicle’s climate control also comes from the battery and, as a result, limits the range, which is not great to begin with, even further. From today’s point of view, the best answer to this problem is a range extender with a combustion engine, which permits a range that is virtually independent from the battery. This is expected to have an impact on the end customers’ acceptance of electric vehicles. Battery-powered electric vehicles with their currently limited usage profile seem to be ideal for use in urban areas. This application range calls for a range extender engine that helps expand the use of urban vehicles. The range extender engine increases the range of the FEV Liiondrive for instance from 80 km with purely electric drive to a total range of 300 km with one full tank of fuel. The result is a special range of requirements on the engine with the following characteristics: : small : light-weight (~50 kg) : low-cost (~1000 €) : limited output range (20 kW to 35 kW), maximum performance is reached with purely electric operation : excellent NVH characteristics : can be offered as an option. Standard range extenders are suitable for battery-powered electric urban vehicles. However, in the larger classes of vehicles, full hybrids with more battery power (plug-in hybrids) are preferable. This class of vehicles can then also be used as urban vehicles with a purely electric drive that can be charged from the power grid, ❶. Open image in new window ❶ Hybrid drivetrains

The transportation sector is generally thought to be contributing up to 25% of all greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions globally. Hence, reducing the usage of fossil fuels by the introduction of electrified powertrain technologies such as hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), battery electric vehicle (BEV) and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) is perceived as a way towards a more sustainable future. With a seemingly more significant shift towards BEV development and roll-out, the research and development of BEV technologies has taken on increasing importance in improving BEV performance and ensuring its competitiveness. Numerical simulation, using MATLAB, is performed as a tool to investigate and to improve the overall performance of BEVs. This study provides an overview of the possible technology outcome and market consequences for future compact BEVs along with HEVs, FCEVs and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). The techno-economics of BEVs, market projection and cost analysis up to 2050 are investigated, as are important BEV characteristics alongside those of other types of vehicles. Well-to-wheel analysis of BEVs is also studied and compared with HEV, FCEV and ICE.

Mental health and climate change: tackling invisible injustice

A study on opportune reduction in greenhouse gas emissions via adoption of electric drive vehicles in light duty vehicle fleets

Well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions of electric versus combustion vehicles from 2018 to 2030 in the US

In recent years, a large number of concepts for drive train electrification and a corresponding broad variety of available drive train configurations were presented to the public. They all have their pros and cons for the customer. This paper discusses a tool enabling the customer to select the drive train which is best suited to his individual purposes. The presented approach focuses on BEV and REEV and is characterized by a three-step procedure: the customer’s individual driving behaviour is measured: individualized driving cycles and operational habits including the daily kilometrage are derived; numerical models of the alternative drive train concepts are run to simulate the energy consumption by applying these individualized cycles. The study reveals that battery sizing is the most important component. It would be more efficient to use a REEV with a smaller battery instead of a BEV: at a given range of 50 km the BEV covers 50% of the kilometers (corresponding to 90% of all daily distances) while the REEV covers 100% of all daily distances, out of it 70% on electric driving. This leads to less CO<sub>2<sub/> emission compared to the combined use of BEV and conventional cars. The REEV with the smallest battery is amortized first referred to conventional cars. The influence of the individual usage pattern can be translated to operational costs. The REEV urban driver covers 85% by electric driving and has thus lower operational costs than the REEV inter-urban driver with 64% electric driving.

Both automakers and electricity generators are facing increasingly more stringent greenhouse gas (GHG) emission targets. With the introduction of plug-in hybrid and electric vehicles, the transportation and electricity generation sectors become connected. This provides an opportunity for both sectors to work jointly to achieve cost efficient reduction of CO2 emissions. Due to the low cost and low carbon content of natural gas (NG), NG enabled vehicles are drawing increasing attention. With GHG targets rapidly decreasing, how to judiciously choose among plug-in hybrid vehicles, electric vehicles, NG-enabled vehicles, and gasoline vehicles to save societal cost is worth serious consideration. On the other hand, gasoline and NG prices play an important role in this decision-making process. In order to estimate the impact of gasoline and NG prices and quantify the benefit of the collaboration between automakers and electricity generators, an optimization model is developed to evaluate the total societal cost and CO2 emissions for both sectors. Various scenario analyses are conducted to understand the cost and capacity planning differences when gasoline and NG prices vary while the two sectors can work jointly or independently to meet the CO2 emission constraints. These results help us understand the impact of gasoline and NG prices in achieving GHG reduction targets for the two major sectors of CO2 emissions in the United States.

Plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) present an interesting technological opportunity for using non-fossil primary energy in light duty passenger vehicles, with the associated potential for reducing air pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions, to the extent that the electric power grid is fed by non-fossil sources. This perspective, accompanying the article by Thompson et al (2011) in this issue, will touch on two other studies that are directly related: the Argonne study (Elgowainy et al 2010) and a PhD thesis from Utrecht (van Vliet 2010).

Electrified vehicles, including plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs), have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from personal transportation by shifting energy demand from gasoline to electricity. GHG reduction potential depends on vehicle design, adoption, driving and charging patterns, charging infrastructure, and electricity generation mix. We construct an optimization model to study these factors by determining optimal design of conventional vehicles (CVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), PHEVs, and BEVs and optimal allocation of vehicle designs and charging infrastructure in the fleet for minimum lifecycle GHG emissions over a range of scenarios. We focus on vehicles with similar size and acceleration to a Toyota Prius under urban EPA driving conditions. We find that under today’s U.S. average grid mix, the vehicle fleet allocated for minimum GHG emissions includes HEVs and PHEVs with ~30 miles (48 km) of electric range. Allocating only CVs, HEVs, PHEVs, or BEVs will produce 86%, 1%, 0%, or 13+% more life cycle GHG emissions, respectively. Unlike BEVs, PHEVs do consume some gasoline; however, PHEVs can power a large portion of vehicle miles on electrical energy while accommodating infrequent long trips without need for a large battery pack, with its corresponding production and weight implications. Availability of workplace charging for 90% of vehicles optimistically reduces optimized GHG emissions by 0.5%. Under decarbonized grid scenarios, larger battery packs are more competitive and reduce life cycle GHG emissions significantly. Future work will relax modeling assumptions and address life cycle cost and cost-effectiveness of GHG reductions.

The widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) can help attain economic and environmental sustainability by reducing oil dependency and greenhouse gas emissions. However, several issues need to be addressed before EVs can become a popular vehicle choice among the general public. A key issue is the perpetual reduction in EV battery capacity caused by battery degradation over time with usage. This can lead to a reduced driving range and cause “range anxiety” for EV drivers. This becomes even more critical in developing countries where consumers are highly sensitive to battery replacement costs. Thus, to promote EVs in developing economies, policymakers and vehicle manufacturers need to develop attractive incentive schemes and warranty strategies preceded by a thorough assessment of the useable EV battery lifespan for a wide range of users. This paper develops a multiparadigm modeling framework to compute battery degradation for a large population of EVs by capturing the effects of travel patterns, traffic conditions, and ambient temperature. The proposed framework consists of four different building blocks: (i) a microscopic traffic simulation model to generate speed profiles, (ii) an EV power consumption model, (iii) a battery equivalent circuit model, and (iv) a semiempirical battery degradation model. The proposed framework can also be used to assess the battery life-cycle of electric-powered automated vehicles by adjusting their travel patterns accordingly. A case study is presented using travel diary data of around 700 households from the U.S. National Household Travel Survey of 2009 to simulate household travel patterns and corresponding battery lifespan distribution.