Abstract
PurposeHeat-and-moisture-exchanging devices (HME) are commonly used by endurance athletes during training in sub-zero environments, but their effects on performance are unknown. We investigated the influence of HME usage on running performance at − 15 °C.MethodsTwenty-three healthy adults (15 male, 8 female; age 18–53 years; dot{V}{text O}_{2peak} men 56 ± 7, women 50 ± 4 mL·kg−1·min−1) performed two treadmill exercise tests with and without a mask-style HME in a randomised, crossover design. Participants performed a 30-min submaximal warm-up (SUB), followed by a 4-min maximal, self-paced running time-trial (TT). Heart rate (HR), respiratory frequency (fR), and thoracic area skin temperature (Tsk) were monitored using a chest-strap device; muscle oxygenation (SmO2) and deoxyhaemoglobin concentration ([HHb]) were derived from near-infra-red-spectroscopy sensors on m. vastus lateralis; blood lactate was measured 2 min before and after the TT.ResultsHME usage reduced distance covered in the TT by 1.4%, despite similar perceived exertion, HR, fR, and lactate accumulation. The magnitude of the negative effect of the HME on performance was positively associated with body mass (r2 = 0.22). SmO2 and [HHb] were 3.1% lower and 0.35 arb. unit higher, respectively, during the TT with HME, and Tsk was 0.66 °C higher during the HME TT in men. HR (+ 2.7 beats·min−1) and Tsk (+ 0.34 °C) were higher during SUB with HME. In the male participants, SmO2 was 3.8% lower and [HHb] 0.42 arb. unit higher during SUB with HME.ConclusionOur findings suggest that HME usage impairs maximal running performance and increases the physiological demands of submaximal exercise.
Highlights
Athletes undertaking training and competition in winter endurance sports, such as cross-country skiing and biathlon, are frequently exposed to extended durations of moderate-to-maximal-intensity exercise in sub-zero temperatures
Sub-zero temperatures are associated with decreased performance in cross-country skiing (Lindberg et al 2012; Wiggen et al 2016), the minimum temperature allowed by the International Ski Federation in crosscountry skiing competitions is − 20 °C, and so, athletes in these sports are prepared to train and compete in ambient temperatures that may not be favorable for optimal performance
Exploration of factors associated with the magnitude of performance decline with Heat-and-moisture-exchanging devices (HME) revealed a significant association between body mass and the effect of the HME
Summary
Athletes undertaking training and competition in winter endurance sports, such as cross-country skiing and biathlon, are frequently exposed to extended durations of moderate-to-maximal-intensity exercise in sub-zero temperatures. High-volume training in sub-zero conditions may increase the likelihood of developing exercise-induced asthma (EIA), which may have long-term effects on health and performance (Sue-Chu 2012). The prevalence of asthma in Swedish adolescent cross-country skiers has been reported at up to 35% in Sweden (Norqvist et al 2015; Eriksson et al 2018), with circa 20–25% of athletes using asthma medications (Eriksson et al 2018), and onset frequently occurring during adolescence (Eriksson et al 2018). The incidence rate of self-reported, physician-diagnosed asthma among elite cross-country skiers has been estimated at 61/1000 person-years (Irewall et al 2020) compared to around 4/1000 person-years in the Swedish general population (Ekerljung et al 2008). Prevalence is higher in women (Eriksson et al 2018) which could be related to their smaller stature, whereby narrower airways may exacerbate shear stress on the airway lining at high rates of ventilation (Kennedy et al 2019)
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