Abstract
This study explored (1) whether growth mixture modelling (GMM) could identify different trajectories of learning efficiency during a working memory (WM) training programme for young children diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), compared with a typically developing (TD) control group, and (2) if learning trajectories and outcomes were different for simple and complex training tasks. Children completed simple visuospatial short-term memory (VSSTM) and complex visuospatial WM (VSWM) tasks for 15 minutes a day, 5 days a week and for 8 weeks. Parent-reported executive functioning, and children’s WM and attention control, educational achievement, and IQ were measured prior to (T1), immediately following (T2) and three months after training (T3). GMM analysis showed that WM training was represented as one learning curve, and there was no difference for the trajectories of the ADHD and TD groups. The learning trajectory for the VSSTM tasks across groups was represented as one learning curve and for the VSWM tasks there were three learning curves. Learning for the VSSTM tasks and for most children in the VSWM tasks was characterized by an inverted-U shape, indicating that training was effective for up to 15 sessions, was stable and declined thereafter, highlighting an optimal training timeframe. For the VSWM tasks, the two remaining groups showed either a U-shaped or a high inverted U-shaped trajectory, with the latter group achieving the highest T1T2 change score (i.e., children showed a lower starting point and the most gain in terms of learning and post-training performance). There were no broader benefits of training at post-test or follow-up. Further research should explore who would benefit most from intensive cognitive training, as well as the potential benefits for mental health and well-being. Keywords. WM training, learning trajectories, young children, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Growth Mixture Modelling (GMM).
Highlights
Developmental research has highlighted that attentional control skills, including working memory (WM), are positively linked to several indices of adjustment in childhood and adolescence, such as emotion regulation
The fit of individual models and comparisons between models were based on the chi-square value (χ2), the normed chi-square (χ2/df), the non-normed fit index, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR), and the Information Criteria Indexes: the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), and the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC)
The current study extended previous research to utilize growth mixture modeling (GMM) to explore learning/training efficiency during an extended WM training protocol for typically developing (TD) children and children given a diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Summary
Developmental research has highlighted that attentional control skills, including working memory (WM), are positively linked to several indices of adjustment in childhood and adolescence, such as emotion regulation (reviews by Hadwin et al, 2016; Moran, 2016). A further meta-analysis showed that reported improvements dropped substantially and became statistically non-significant when only blinded measures were considered (Cortese et al, 2015) Reviews of this evidence highlight that WM training for individuals diagnosed with ADHD leads to short-term improvements in WM functions that are directly taught. We investigated three research questions to consider (1) whether trajectories of learning in performance during WM training (i.e., an index of training efficiency) were different between individuals diagnosed with ADHD vs TD controls; (2) whether GMM would allow us to identify sub-groups with different trajectories of training efficiency for simple and complex training tasks and (3) if different trajectories were associated with near and far transfer in non-trained outcomes. We explored parent reported general behavior and cognitive ability in offspring
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