A Feminist Agenda for Reducing the Gender Digital Divide

There is little shared understanding of the term “digital divide,” but this has not prevented the international community from investing a great deal of effort in projects that aim to reduce the digital divide by reducing disparities in access to information and communication technologies (ICT) (European Commission High Level Group, 1997; International Telecommunication Union [ITU], 1984, 2003; United Nations Economic and Social Commission [UN ECOSOC], 2000). The divergent rate at which ICT diffuses—the digital divide—is a reflection of broader socioeconomic divides, many of which exist within societies. The divide between men and women, rich and poor, young and old, urban and rural, literate and non-literate, also manifests itself in the digital world of media, computers, telecommunications, Internet, and jobs in software production. Information and communication flows carried by ICT are increasingly becoming an integral factor in international, institutional, and political processes. Lack of access to ICT therefore impacts on opportunities for developing countries’ economic growth, wealth distribution, social empowerment, and development. It is the digital divide which largely prevents the equal sharing of knowledge worldwide and leads to “information and knowledge poverty” among certain groups. If only a select number of countries, and within them certain groups, reap the benefits of ICT while others continue to lag behind, the digital divide will continue to grow and the virtuous cycle that ICT can create will not be enjoyed by many (Millward-Oliver, 2005). There is little acknowledgment and even less acceptance that gender constitutes an important influence in the structure of the “digital divide.” At first glance, this failure to admit context may seem strange and out of step with common sense. Why should gender relations, such an important and pivotal element of social structure, that is known to influence differentiated access to financial resources, employment opportunities, education and training, water and sanitation, health care, legal status, and enjoyment of human-rights not affect access to and control of ICT? This article will explore some of the key factors that lead to gender blindness in the digital divide debate and articulate a strategic response

Purpose The purpose of the paper is to investigate the empirical linkages between information and communication technologies (ICTs), digital inclusion and sustainable development. This research aims to address a gap in the existing literature by exploring how ICT policies and digital inclusion efforts contribute to sustainable development outcomes across countries in developed and developing regions. Governments around the globe are increasingly relying on ICT policies to promote development in societies. Specifically, access and use of ICTs have been found to promote sustainable development across countries. Studies further argue the need for countries to bridge the digital divide to reap the full benefits of sustainable development. However, the empirical linkages between ICTs, digital inclusion and sustainable development have seldom been explored. This study is conducted to fill this gap in the literature. Design/methodology/approach This study relies on the capability approach and archival data for 130 countries from the network readiness index for 2021 to examine the nexus between ICTs, digital inclusion and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), using partial least squares structural equation modelling to validate the study’s hypotheses. Findings Findings show the positive effects of ICT access and ICT usage on digital inclusion. Digital inclusion was found to be significantly associated with SDGs. Furthermore, mediating effect results show the significant effect of digital inclusion on the nexus between ICT access and SDGs as well as ICT usage and SDGs. Originality/value To theory, this study uniquely shows through the capability approach how access and use of ICTs empower individuals to engage in information accessibility, sharing and communication and how it promotes safe and sustainable societies to achieve SDG11. To research, this study’s outcomes provide new insights into the links between ICTs, digital inclusion and SDG11. Unlike past studies investigating the nexus between ICTs in general and SDGs, this study shows how ICT access and use propels digital inclusion and SDG11.

In today’s world, information and communication technologies (ICT) and the ability to use their potential effectively, provide access to the latest information, digital services, communication, prompt inclusion in the labour market, participation in lifelong learning, and are an integral part of the successful functioning of society (Ekbia, 2016; Fabre and Popova, 2017). At the same time, the growing importance of ICT creates new challenges in ensuring equal opportunities for all, without exception, to have access to technological equipment, the Internet, the development of digital competences and digital services, and to enable them to use ICT effectively. The need to increase digital inclusion is particularly important in this area. Digital inclusion is associated with enabling socially excluded groups in society to use digital technologies effectively: for effective communication, participation in various activities, involvement in society and community (Real et al. 2014; Newman et al. 2017). The goals of digital inclusion are inseparable from the goals of social inclusion (Farooq et al., 2015; Beyene, 2018), in which the inclusion of all persons without exception, especially those belonging to socially excluded groups, in society and community is important. Caruso (2014), Bertot (2016), Borg and Smith (2018), Beyene (2018), Strover et al. (2020) note that digital inclusion comprises three key principles: access to the latest technologies, ICT adoption and application. The principle of application is the most important principle. It comprises the effective use of ICT, digital information and digital competences for learning, employment, self-education, civic participation, health strengthening and other purposes.Public libraries are very important organizations in increasing digital inclusion. In order to increase digital inclusion, public libraries should carry out activities aimed at providing access to ICT and the Internet, improving the digital competences and offering digital services. In this area, it is particularly important for public libraries to exploit the potential of their wide network of institutions, the variety of free services and possibilities to cooperate with other organizations. These aspects exclude public libraries from other institutions, enabling them to involve more people in digital inclusion activities and reach the most vulnerable groups of society that often experience social exclusion (Yılmaz and Cevher, 2015; Casselden, Pickard and McLeod, 2015; Appleton et al. 2018; Wyatt, Mcquire and Butt, 2018). The need to foster digital inclusion highlights the necessity to assess the activities of public libraries in increasing digital inclusion empirically. The aim of this article is to investigate the activities of public libraries in increasing the digital inclusion and to identify possible directions for the improvement of digital inclusion. The case of Šiauliai region was chosen for the empirical research. The methods of scientific literature content analysis, structured E- mail interview, systematization and generalization of collected data and secondary data analysis were employed in this research.The empirical research has shown that the activities of Šiauliai region libraries in the field of increasing digital inclusion include the main ones discussed in the scientific literature (Caruso, 2014; Nemer, 2015; Bertot, 2016; Luterek 2017; Beyene, 2018; Gregg and McKendry, 2018; Strover et al. 2020); ensuring free access to ICT and the Internet, developing digital competences and providing digital services. Free access to ICT and the Internet offered by public libraries is important for people with disabilities and seniors, providing opportunities to take care of health, communicate with relatives and save money. Digital literacy training in libraries, individual consultations and some digital services (e.g. e-books, virtual events) are relevant to these target groups. However, the involvement of people with disabilities and seniors in these activities is insufficient, especially in the area of access to digital services. The empirical research showed that the involvement of these target groups in the digital inclusion activities offered by libraries is limited. This limitation is caused by such reasons as lack of personal motivation, lack of digital skills, not adapted libraries infrastructure and technological equipment and lack of information about these activities.Taking these aspects into account, it is recommended for public libraries to increase the diversity of access to digital services, intensify initiatives to publicize information about these services and develop cooperation with organizations, representing these target groups (care homes, associations of the disabled, organizations representing seniors, daycare centers, etc.). This cooperation could increase the involvement of people with disabilities and seniors in the activities offered by libraries and contribute to the increase of digital inclusion.

1. Introduction The literature in social sciences relating to the information and communication technologies (ICT) addresses aspects of the problem of digital divide. Unfortunately, very little has been written on the legal dimension of the same problem. Even then, the focus has been on policy and regulatory issues surrounding access to ICTs (Gonzalez, 2005a, p. 73). Far less significance has been given to the problem in the intellectual property (IP) literature, though some of the debate on the continuing expansion of IP indirectly touches on it. This article aims to examine how IP might contribute towards the digital divide and the possible ways and means of reversing its negative impact. As already mentioned, the ongoing debate on the further expansion of IP to cover ('properties') every imaginable form of information and calls to curtail or revise such expansion indirectly link with the urge to lessen whatever impact IP might have on the digital divide. While the literature critiquing IP expansion towards the end of the 20th century has largely developed in the context of concerns for the continuity of creativity and innovation as well as cultural progress in the industrially advanced societies, this article seeks to scrutinise the narrower problem of how IP might have impinged on the digital divide. This can be achieved by moving beyond the general denunciation of current IP as somehow outdated and as a mere stranglehold over innovation and human progress; instead, the article explores the nature of IP and the manner of its evolution over the centuries within the framework of the demands and expectations of economies and societies, whether industrial or non-industrial. The benefits of such an approach are that the critique of the system will be grounded in the history, economics and technologies of countries and nations that gave rise to it as well as that any proposals for validating, reforming or overthrowing the system will not appear whimsical or utopian. The article is organised in four sections. Section 1 defines the concept of 'digital divide'. Section 2 outlines whether and how IP law has coped with the digital revolution. Section 3 then reviews the perspectives of the relevant stakeholders in stemming the digital divide: the OECD and the WSIS; global corporations such as Microsoft; NGOs and the Friends of The Intellectual Commons. Section 4 brings together, and critically assesses, the various strands of views on possible way(s) of bridging the digital divide in terms of current IP law and policy and in light of any emerging trends. The article concludes that, while IP does contribute to the digital divide, some of its critics fail to recognise the paramount role of the economic and social environment within which it has developed; consequently, any proposals for overthrowing IP leaving that environment intact will remain fanciful. 2. The 'Digital Divide' Defined The term 'digital divide' has become popular shorthand to refer to any perceived inequality in the use of information and communication technologies (ICT); however, no clear consensus has emerged in defining it (Ibid). More often, the term is used broadly to denote the gap the technology haves and have-nots as a whole. One commentator refers to the patters of development arising from the unequal access to the new world of instant communications and infinite information on demand (Alexander, 1996, p.195). He argues, In a world governed by information, exclusion from information is as devastating as exclusion from land in an agricultural age (Ibid). Occasionally, there is tendency to view the concept as equivalent to the gap in information; in other words, not just in access to facilities alone. A report prepared for UNESCO, by contrast, views gaps in the level of ICT introduced by countries, between 'ICT-haves' and 'have-nots' as a measure of 'the digital divide' (Sciadas, 2003, p. …

Much of the developed world has, over the past two decades, been transformed by what are now termed information and communication technologies (ICTs). These technologies exert great impact on most aspects of our lives—in economic activities, education, entertainment, communication, travel, and so on. Also they have inextricably linked with economic prosperity and power (Davison, Vogel, Harris, et al., 2000). At present, Africa is at the bottom of the ICT ladder. This has serious implications both for the continent and the entire world. This is because ICTs are enhancing the economies of those countries that are ICT-rich faster then those that are ICT-poor, thus further widening the development gap between Africa and the industrialized world (Ya’u, n.d.) The realization of the importance of ICTs in economic advancement led the United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development (UNCSTD) to devote the 1995 through 1997 to the study of the linkages between ICTs and development. One of the important results of that effort was the placing of the digital divide on global development agenda. Since then, there has been an internal consensus that there is the need to bridge the digital divide. As a result of this consensus, there has evolved various bridging strategies, actions and initiatives at international, regional, continental and local country levels. Learning from these efforts, African countries have, under the leadership of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), been developing national, sub-regional, and continental initiatives to overcome the digital divide and to promote the greater inclusion of Africa communities into the cyberspace (Ya’u, n.d.) In this chapter, efforts are made to define digital divide, unravel the status of Africa in the global digital map, enumerate the causes of low level of ICT diffusion in Africa, efforts at bridging the divide, discusses future trends, and concludes with steps that can address the divide.

This article investigates the impact of information and communication technologies (ICTs), human capital, institutional settings, socio-economic, and environmental parameters on sustainable innovation (SI) using archival data for 127 economies from 2008 to 2017. We developed an econometrics research framework for investigating factors influencing SI on a global scale. We found that ICT variables, such as ICT access and ICT broadband network, positively influence sustainable innovation in conjunction with the socio-economic and political parameters. Despite differences among economies in terms of ICTs, socio-economic development, and educational attainment, ICTs are the significant drivers of sustainable innovation and economic growth. We observed a growing digital divide among nations within the context of the knowledge-based economy and the expansion of digital commerce, particularly in the least developed countries and Africa, a phenomenon impeding sustainable innovation growth. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that empirically investigates the global digital divide from sustainable innovation perspectives. The results of this study suggest that to tackle the digital divide issues, policymakers and educational institutes need to perform constructive educational reform in higher education curricula, particularly concerning STEM programs, which should reflect the necessary skills and competencies for deploying emergent technologies. In addition, ICT should be considered part of a country’s critical infrastructure, particularly investment in the broadband networks regarded as the backbone of today’s innovation.

Information professionals in a globalized world: Digital inclusion initiatives in Brazil: Improving education and information seeking behavior through government‐academic partnerships

PurposeDigital divide is lack of access to and effective use of information and communication technology (ICT). It represents the difference between people with access to ICT and who use it effectively and those who do not. The aim of this study is to determine the level of digital divides amongst estate surveyors and valuers (recognized real estate practitioners in Nigeria). This is with a view to turning the identified digital divides into digital dividends for sustainable real estate practice in Nigeria and elsewhere.Design/methodology/approachIn attaining the aim, primary data were collected on 3,627 corporate members of the Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Valuers (NIESV) with questionnaires administered through the internet using SurveyMonkey, an internet‐based software complemented with bulk sms to alert them about posting of the questionnaires into their e‐mail addresses. The Culbertson's constructs for evaluating digital awareness in the USA were adapted for inclusion in the survey instrument. The finding on the estate surveyors and valuers was also compared with those on comparable professionals in the building industry to determine if the respondents are lagging behind in adopting ICT.FindingsBased on the Culbertson's constructs, there is great digital divide between practising estate surveyors and valuers and their counterparts in advanced countries. The analysis indicated that 33.75 percent of the respondents were not committed to ICT, 26.25 percent were slightly committed, and at least 38.75 percent were somewhat committed; and the respondents were classified as “low‐tech high‐touch” professionals; and their level of ICT deployment found to be appropriate within the framework of the Nigerian National Bureau of Statistics. This implies that digital divide is not a challenge to real estate practice in Nigeria.Research limitations/implicationsThe study serves as good starting block for further analysis of the setting, challenges, and practice of real estate profession in Nigeria and elsewhere with regards to ICT applications. The research posited the implication for the NIESV to organize mandatory continued professional development workshops on ICT to remain relevant in the fast moving digital society. The IT requirements, current skill base, and curricula in the higher institutions were however not examined. It is therefore necessary to carry out further research on students and faculty in the higher institutions to identify the gaps in skill and technological capabilities.Originality/valueThe findings help in specifying development activities that will enhance improvements in professional standards, build local capacity and improve transparency expected by international investors. Also, the findings provide professional bodies and policy‐makers with indications to improve and ensure sustainable real estate professional practice through continuous and life‐long training of members in ICT. It recommended capacity building, reviving of interests of practitioners, direct investment of software companies, and research as approaches to reducing the level of digital divide between practitioners in advanced countries and Nigeria in order to remain relevant in the technologically‐driven and competitive world.

Information and communication technology (ICT), digital divide and urbanization: Evidence from Chinese cities

Purpose – this paper aims to describe the role of public libraries in bridging the digital divide. The paper firstly reviews the existing literature body in this area and then suggests a number of practical solutions. Digital divide is a concept which appears in the area of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) since 1990 and refers to the existing inequality in accessing to ICT among various social groups of people. Method – A purposeful sample of 28 public libraries from seven English-speaking countries (The USA, the UK, Canada, Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, and South Africa) was selected. Then the researcher carried out a qualitative content analysis of their websites to evaluate their practical ways of addressing this issue and finally he incorporated all of these solutions into a number of practical guidelines. Findings – Based on the availability of ICT facilities in public libraries and the users’ proficiency of information literacy skills, four level of digital divide can be identified as follow: deep, semi-deep, average, and shallow digital divide. The results show the most important solution to fill out the digital divide is to enhance the educational role of libraries and to improve their information services. Moreover, public libraries can take more actions to address this issue such as: providing their users with more computer facilities and electronic resources, reconstruct their existing hardware and software, revising their policies, providing end users with more advanced facilities to access to the Internet and other electronic resources, launch remote services such as electronic reference desk, running information literacy skills workshops, development new library websites and maintain them updated, and finally having a more mutual and dynamic interaction with formal educational institutions and encourage library users to use more ICT facilities. Originality and Value – Despite the importance of digital divide and publishing a huge number of papers on this topic in English, there are only a few Persian papers regarding this topic and this paper would be a useful source for Persian readers.

Digital divide appears when China coordinates the development of traditional industry and informatization. The main reason is the asymmetric information caused by regional informatization difference. The study uses Keith Griffin's model that is about the generation and diffusion of agricultural green technology revolution, and uses the ideas of information economics to draw an Information and Communications Technology (ICT) diffusion model containing an isoquant. The ICT model can analyze user's different choices in communication technologies in different stages of informatization, and we can identify an ICT gap by crossing the isoquant of different stages and the ratio between different user's capital and laboring. The ICT gap can describe the size of the digital divide. A demonstration analysis is made on the informatization level of Liaoning province by informatization index measuring. The results show that ICT is an efficient way to narrow digital divide and also give suggestions in how to further develop ICT and narrow digital divide.

This paper addresses the ‘Digital Divide' concerning disparities in adopting information and communication technologies (ICTs) at the regional level in Türkiye. Acknowledging the multiscale dimension of the digital divide, two main research questions are addressed: (1) Is there a digital divide between regions in Türkiye? If so, (2) How does the digital divide affect the development disparities in Türkiye? The ICT Development Index (IDI) and Socio-Economic Development Index (SEDI) are utilized together to answer these questions. Results reveal a positive correlation between them and significant discrepancies between Türkiye‘s eastern and western regions. Remarkably, the digitalization gap is narrower than the socio-economic development gap. The findings suggest that while digital technologies have diffused rapidly in Türkiye, their socio-economic benefits have been absorbed more slowly. This study aims to contribute to the literature on the digital divide and information and communication technology for development (ICT4D) at the regional level, providing insights for policymakers to address regional digital inequalities in Türkiye.

Despite figures suggesting that Australia is a high consumer of information and communication technologies (ICT), it is well documented that the pattern of this consumption is not spread evenly across the population; a 'digital divide' exists. In general, research suggests that people from higher socioeconomic backgrounds have greater access to ICT compared to those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. A less well-researched area is the factors that may influence ICT access and usage within certain demographic and socioeconomic groups. This paper presents new data on the access and usage of ICT (computers and the Internet) by 3,404 households and 6,874 children from financially disadvantaged backgrounds. Fifty-nine per cent of the sample had a home computer and just under one-third had the Internet connected at home. The most common location for accessing the Internet was at school. A striking finding was the strong association between the level of parental education and ICT access and use. Schools are important in closing or levelling the access gap, as most students use computers and the Internet at school. However, considering the importance of having home Internet access for children's educational performance, the fact that almost three-quarters of students in this study did not use the Internet at home is of concern, particularly given that almost half of a comparable Australian population have home Internet access. Finding ways to increase the home access of low-income families to the Internet should therefore remain a policy priority for all sectors aiming to bridge the digital divide. Policies aimed at bridging the digital divide should also ensure that programs provide appropriate parenting support and emphasise the educational importance of having home access to computers and the Internet.

The concept of the digital divide is becoming more and more complex as access to computers and the use of computers, changes over time. When the existence of a “digital divide” first emerged, it revolved around access to computers and related technologies. The high cost of computers and related technologies creates a large divide between people who could afford them, and who had access to all the advantages of Information technology in general, and those who could not. ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) have become an indispensable tool for businesses. Competitiveness and productivity depend on them. Cloud Computing has also generated new business opportunities for companies that have understood the key to this new social and commercial space. Cloud Computing on education can bridge the knowledge divide, the resource divide and the digital divide, teachers could be empowered under the cloud warning. It can be on devices, notebook, e-book and cell-phone. Cloud Computing in order to reduce digital divide has come as a friendly way to provide computer applications to users without the need for those users to purchase, install or support software on their local computers and/or servers. This research will cover the facts and issues discovered into the Digital Divide, after exploring details and points of views from experts. Also, this research will provide two models and one framework to describe, explain and finally reduce the gap or as most of the researchers has been looking for building a bridge in order to reduce the digital divide. Since computers and, later, the Internet became popular and came to our business, there has been a different degree of acceptance thereof by the people. The variety of profiles ranging from the 'early adopter', that is one that is to last forever in this new technology, to the 'allergic' to the computer, because they do not know how to use password to login and/or prefers to work as they always have done. Is not the first time we hear about people who cannot make simples actions in a computer because their capabilities are very low. I'm talking about everyday situations, rather than more complex ones such as maintenance of machinery. This research will treat the Cloud Computing concept as a tool to Reduce Digital Divide; the digital divide will be related to issues of educational access to the benefits of digitalization and the capabilities of a group of students in three different high school centers to use ICT appropriately and contribute to sustainable development.

It is considered that the development in information and communication technologies (ICT ), which gained importance within the late 20th. century, has enhanced economic growth and improved the living standarts of individuals. However, not all the countries can benefit from the developments in ICT. This situation brings along factors like digital divide and digital poverty that affect public welfare negatively. In this study, applications that can be done to overcome the mentioned problems and the effects of digital divide on international trade are discussed by analysing the global aspect of digital poverty. The result obtained suggests that solving the problems caused by the digital divide in country level is not enough and sets the need of competing with these problems in a global level.