A Discussion on Gender Equity and Women of Color

Professional and popular media have recently given welcome attention to gender equity and education. For example, national news programs and newspapers across America featured The AAUW Report: How Schools Shortchange Girls (American Association of University Women, 1992), a review of over 1,100 research studies from the last 20 years documenting gender gaps in educational persistence and achievement, especially in mathematics and science. For over two decades, researchers and program developers have produced a steady output of work on gender equity in education. The Women's Educational Equity Act Publishing Center publishes a 25-page catalog listing hundreds of gender equity materials, nearly all I intended for K-12. A 52-page bibliography lists hundreds more gender equity resources in mathematics, science, and technology (MST) for classroom teachers, most of which were developed for the K-12 level. The American Association of University Women (AAUW) report How Schools Shortchange Girls (1992) contains reviews of numerous studies and articles on gender equity in education in Grades K-12. Gender equity in teacher education has received much less attention. Sadker and Sadker (1980), in their analysis of common teacher education texts, found that one third contained no mention of sexism; none included materials on nonsexist teaching. In a study of education foundations textbooks reviewed for attention to gender equity, Titus (1993) concluded, I found little discussion of gender equity, suggesting low interest in this area by educators (p. 38). Several authors have included general recommendations to teacher educators on incorporating gender equity, described the need and suggestions of how to include equity in professional preparation of educational administrators, and offered a description of a course they developed for preservice students on gender equity (Eckart & Tracy, 1992; Rose & Dunne, 1989; Shakeshaft, 1990). The National Science Foundation funds few projects dealing with gender equity in teacher education; a notable exception is the Teacher Education Equity Project, funded by the National Science Foundation, IBM, Hewlett Packard, and AT&T from 1993 to 1996. Authors of the AAUW (1991) report, Stalled Agenda: Gender Equity and the Training of Educators, concluded that gender equity in teacher education amounted to a stalled agenda. Some professional groups are devoting attention to gender equity in teacher education. The American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) has a study group on gender equity, a standing committee on women's issues, and a program for leadership development for aspiring female leaders. AACTE was an early participant in the Sadkers' projects and included results of their research in annual meetings a dozen years ago. The Association of Teacher Educators (ATE) has a commission on gender equity in education. The 23 teacher education institutions of the Renaissance Group have an affinity group for sex equity. Professional associations directly concerned with gender equity have given attention to teacher preparation as well. The National Coalition for Sex Equity in Education has a task force on teacher preparation, and Research on Women in Education, a special interest group of the American Educational Research Association, devotes sessions to gender equity at its annual meetings. However, teacher preparation is not a primary focus for either group. The conjunction of teacher education and gender equity is relatively sparse. Omission of gender equity at the preservice level means that new teachers may enter the classroom not realizing how their behavior and the educational materials they use may inadvertently harm girls' performance and aspirations. If classroom teachers encounter in-depth, high-quality K-12 gender equity projects during their careers, such as Lawrence Hall of Science's EQUALS (Kreinberg, 1989), they may unlearn harmful patterns and learn beneficial ones. …

Contents: Preface. S.S. Klein with C. Kramarae and B. Richardson, Examining the Achievement of Gender Equity in and Through Education. B. Richardson, Part I: Facts and Assumptions About the Nature and Value of Gender Equity. J. Hyde, S.M. Lindberg, Facts and Assumptions About the Nature of Gender Differences and the Implications for Gender Equity. N. Stromquist, Gender Equity Education Globally. B. Richardson, P. Sandoval, Impact of Education on Gender Equity in Employment and Its Outcomes. D. Grayson, Part II: Administrative Strategies for Implementing Gender Equity. M. Nash, S.S. Klein, B. Bitters, S. Hobbs, W. Howe, L. Shevitz, L. Wharton, The Role of Government in Advancing Gender Equity in Education.C. Shakeshaft, G. Brown, B.J. Irby, M. Grogan, J. Ballenger, Increasing Gender Equity in Educational Leadership. D. Sadker, K. Zittleman, P. Earley, T. McCormick, C. Strawn, J-A. Preston, The Treatment of Gender Equity in Teacher Education. L. Fox, Part III: General Educational Practices for Promoting Gender Equity. D. Reed, L. Fox, M.L. Andrews, N. Betz, J.P. Evenstad, A. Harris, C. Hightower-Parker, J. Johnson, S. Johnson, B. Polnick, P. Rosser, Gender Equity in Testing and Assessment. E. Arms, Gender Equity in Coeducational and Single Sex Educational Environments. G. Abbott, L. Bievenue, S. Damarin, C. Kramarae with G. Jepkemboi and C. Strawn, Gender Equity in the Use of Educational Technology. M.A. Paludi with L. Nydegger, J. Martin, C.A. Paludi, Jr., Sexual Harassment: The Hidden Gender Equity Problem. C. Kramarae, Part IV: Gender Equity Strategies in the Content Areas. C. Lacampagne, P. Campbell, S. Damarin, A. Herzig, C. Vogt, Gender Equity in Mathematics. C. Burger, G. Abbott, S. Tobias, J. Koch, C. Vogt, with L. Bievenue, D. Carlito, T. Sosa, and C. Strawn, Gender Equity in Science, Engineering, and Technology. A. Taylor, A. Bailey, P. Cooper, C.A. Dwyer, C. Kramarae, B. Lieb, Gender Equity in Communication Skills. C. Brantmeier, J. Wilde, J. Schueller, C. Kinginger, Gender Equity in Foreign and Second Language Learning. C.L. Hahn, J. Bernard-Powers, M. Crocco, C. Woyshner, Gender Equity in Social Studies. E. Garber, R. Sandell, M.A. Stankiewicz, D. Risner, with G. Collins, K. Congdon, M. Floyd, M. Jaksch, P. Speirs, S. Springgay, E. Zimmerman, and R. Irwin, Gender Equity in Visual Arts and Dance Education. E. Staurowsky, N. Hogshead-Makar, M.J. Kane, E. Wughalter, A. Yiamouyiannis, P. Lerner, Gender Equity in Physical Education and Athletics. J. DeLamater, Gender Equity in Formal Sexuality Education. M.E. Lufkin, M. Wiberg, C.R. Jenkins, T. Boyer, E. Eardley, J. Huss, Gender Equity in Career and Technical Education. B. Eudey, with E. Correa, S. Lukas, The Role of Women's and Gender Studies in Advancing Gender Equity. D. Pollard, Part V: Gender Equity Strategies for Diverse Populations. O.M. Welch, F.E. Patterson, K.A. Scott, D. Pollard, Gender Equity for African Americans. A. Ginorio, M. Vasquez, Y. Lapayese, Gender Equity for Latina/os. M. Spencer, Y. Inoue, G.P. McField, Gender Equity for Asian and Pacific Island Americans. A. Calhoun, M. Goeman, M. Tsethlikai, Gender Equity for American Indians. J. Kosciw, E. Byard, S.N. Fischer, C. Joslin, Gender Equity and Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Issues in Education. L. Fox, J. Soller, Gender Equity for Gifted Students. D. Mertens, A. Wilson, J. Mounty, Gender Equity for People With Disabilities. C.A. Dwyer, Part VI: Gender Equity From Early Through Postsecondary Education. B. Polnick, C. Dwyer, D. Fromberg, M. Froschl, C.F. Haynie, B. Sprung, Gender Equity in Early Learning Environments. J. Cooper, P. Eddy, J. Hart, J. Lester, S. Lukas, B. Eudey, J. Glazer-Raymo, M. Madden, Improving Gender Equity in Postsecondary Education. S.S. Klein, Summary and Recommendations for Achieving Gender Equity in and Through Education.

In the modern world, communication through media and digital channels has become increasingly prevalent. It is imperative to consider how these channels influence social perceptions and constructs. Gender equity is a critical topic in educational contexts. A comprehensive study was conducted to analyze the portrayal of gender constructs in media narratives and their impact on gender equity in Islamic PERSIS educational environments. The study utilized qualitative research, including content analysis of media narratives and interviews with members of Islamic PERSIS organizations. The study brings to light the positive and negative roles of media narratives in shaping attitudes and perceptions about gender roles. Therefore, the study emphasizes the need to examine media representations to promote gender equity critically. The research has significant implications for contemporary media and digital communication in advancing gender equity in educational settings related to Islamic PERSIS organizations. It encourages a more responsible approach to media content creation by acknowledging the power of media narratives to shape perceptions. This contributes to a broader conversation about gender equity and the role of contemporary media in promoting social change and inclusivity

Gender equity in education generates a push force that accelerates progress across sectors and goals; thus national development. Gender equality constitutes central position in both national and international programmes as an accelerator for achieving development. Women’s place in national development appears subordinated. Thus, this study examined gender equity in education in Nigeria and the impact on national development. Specifically, the study sought to determine the degree of women access to education, ascertain the impact of women education on socio-economic development determine the factors that constitute barriers to women education in Nigeria, the consequences of low women access to education and benefits of gender equity and women in education. The study discovered that educated women serve as stabilizing factor in national development and recommended ‘cultural rebirth, smart economic, new education content and soft competition technique’ as the approach that will grant women the needed equity in national development in Nigeria.

IntroductionWomen of Color and Gender Equity Anita Tijerina Revilla (bio) and Wendy Smooth (bio) With this special issue we commemorate the fortieth anniversary of the 1974 Women’s Educational Equity Act (weea). This legislation provided funds for Title IX and codified women’s equality under the law in the United States, setting forth a foundation for antidiscrimination policies and remedies. weea, along with other landmark legislation of the period, began cultivating a language and rhetoric around gender equity. The weea focused on ensuring gender equity in education in the United States; promoting equity in education for women and girls who experience multiple forms of discrimination; and providing financial assistance to implement the requirements of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. Forty years later we consider where we are in terms of gender equity, in particular in terms of women of color and women in the transnational context. While very few scholars and activists continue to use the language of a “gender equality” framework, many have been impacted, are doing work around gender equality in various arenas, and are defending the advances that have been made as a result of this framework and the support it received through policy and education. As guest editors for this Frontiers special issue, we both enter this conversation as women of color concerned about how limited access to opportunity can curtail our advancement. Wendy, trained in political science and women’s and gender studies, focuses her scholarship on women of color, in particular black women’s access to political institutions and the structures that enable as well as limit their voices in the political process. Advancing women’s rights and protections through law and public policy at the local level in the United States largely depends on the roles that women of color play as elected leaders in local governments. Anita was trained as an education, race, and ethnic studies scholar, and she has a fifteen-year teaching and research career in gender and sexuality studies. As a guest editor she offers her insight as an activist scholar who studies social justice pedagogy rooted in feminist and queer social movements. We find there is no better time to raise the questions we explore in this special issue regarding women of color and gender equity, given both the recent [End Page vii] advancements and the continued challenges women and girls of color face in the United States and transnationally. Recognizing the persistence of gender pay inequalities in the United States, as we go to press, President Obama signed an executive order and issued a presidential memorandum to address this issue. The executive order prohibits federal contractors from retaliating against employees who disclose their salary information to each other. The presidential memorandum, addressed to the labor secretary, requires federal contractors to report wage data by both race and gender to the Department of Labor, a significant intervention in that it recognizes that for women of color the existing gaps in pay are even more severe.1 Together these interventions are designed to make it more difficult for federal contractors to enact and maintain systems that discriminate against women in the paid labor market. Just as this small advancement addresses gender pay equity in the United States, we are reminded that the right to an education is still challenged for girls of color. Recent developments in Nigeria remind us how threatening patriarchal powers regard an educated girl child. Extremists kidnapped over two hundred girls from their school, citing their objections to educating girls. While religious leaders and governments worldwide have denounced the kidnappings, it no less required outraged women of color using social media as a tool to bring global attention and pressure to elicit aggressive responses to the kidnappings.2 That pay equity is still not a reality for women in the United States and that an estimated two hundred Nigerian girls could go “missing” in the midst of a school day are just two critical reminders of the elusive nature of women’s equality and the persistent challenges that women of color face as they attempt to move closer to this goal. The contributors to this special issue remind us of how women...

This study aims to figure out the difference in perceptions of female and male students of gender equity in education by determining quantitative and qualitative approaches.To measuring the three-domain of gender equity in education (1) equity of access, (2) equity of opportunity in the learning process, and (3) equity of opportunity in educational achievement.We used questionnaires and distributed them to 111 students which are categorized into two genders; 59 female students, and 52 male students.Subsequently, depth interviews were carried out with 10 male students who were randomly chosen to investigate why male students did not accept fully gender equity in education.The independent t-test analysis was utilized to pointed out empirical facts.There was a significant difference in perception between female students and male students of gender equity in education.Gender equity have been coveted by many communities of society including the government.It is supposed to include gender equity material in the curriculum so that stakeholders and all school elements have awareness and are proactive in promoting gender equity in education.

Measuring Gender Equality in Education: Lessons from Trends in 43 Countries

Despite increasing global efforts to promote gender equity in education, gender stereotypes continue to pose significant barriers to female students’ engagement and achievement in mathematics, particularly within pathways leading to STEM careers. Prior studies have established the detrimental effects of such stereotypes, yet there remains a limited understanding of the mediating role these beliefs play in the relationship between mathematical self-efficacy and mathematics anxiety, especially among pre-university students in developing countries. Addressing this gap, the present study investigates the mediating influence of gender stereotypes on the link between self-efficacy and mathematics anxiety among Peruvian pre-university students pursuing STEM-related fields. A total of 304 participants (116 males and 188 females), aged 16 to 35, were drawn from science (n = 38), technology (n = 26), engineering (n = 142), and mathematics (n = 98) disciplines. Quantitative analyses revealed that female students reported significantly higher levels of perceived gender stereotype threat, lower mathematical self-efficacy, and elevated mathematics anxiety compared to their male counterparts. Mediation analysis further demonstrated that stereotype-induced identity threat undermines self-efficacy, thereby intensifying anxiety related to mathematics. However, the study acknowledges limitations, including gender and field imbalances within the sample and the limited scope of variables examined. These findings underscore the urgent need for educational interventions that address stereotype threats and foster equitable learning environments. The results contribute to the broader discourse on gender equity in mathematics education and inform strategies to support female students' sustained participation in STEM trajectories.

This study examines gender education trends in Somalia from 2016 to 2026 by forecasting gross enrolment, net enrolment rates, and gender parity index for primary andsecondary education. Official statistical documents from the Somali Ministry of Education, Culture, and Higher Education for primary and secondary schools from the academic years 2015/2016 to 2020/2021 were analyzed using SPSS and Excel. The findings revealed a significant gender education gap, with boys having higher enrolment rates than girls at both levels due to poverty, child labor, poor security, and lack of community awareness. The Somali Ministry of Education has formulated a five-year plan to increase enrolment rates and promote gender equity in education. Finally, the study provides recommendations for policymakers to improve gender equity in education in Somalia.

At the Millennium Summit, the world community pledged to promote gender equality and chose as a specific target the achievement of gender equity in primary and secondary education by the year 2005 in every country of the world. Based on the findings from a growing empirical literature that suggests that gender equity in education promotes economic growth and reduce fertility, child mortality, and undernutrition, we estimate what the costs in terms of growth, and forgone fertility, mortality and undernutrition reduction, will be for the 45 countries that are, on current projections, unlikely to meet the target. Our estimates suggest that, by 2005, the countries that are off track are likely to suffer 0.1-0.3 percentage points lower per capita growth rates as a result and will have 0.1-0.4 more children per woman, and, by 2015, an average of 15 per 1000 higher rates of under five mortality and 2.5 percentage points higher prevalence of underweight children under five. Sensitivity analyses suggest that the results are quite robust to using different specifications and approaches to estimating these losses.

The Costs of Missing the Millennium Development Goal on Gender Equity

Education is a cornerstone of human development, yet many girls and women still face barriers to access. Scholars in human resource development stress that inclusive education is essential for social, political, and economic progress. This article argues that equitable access is not only vital for development but also a constitutional right. Despite progress, true gender equity in education remains out of reach. Using a social justice lens, the article calls for inclusive learning environments that overcome gender and cultural barriers. It draws on the Capabilities Approach, which emphasizes enabling individuals to pursue meaningful lives, and Social Cognitive Career Theory, which explores how socio-economic and cognitive factors shape educational outcomes. Persistent challenges—such as sexism, patriarchy, poverty, and gender-based violence—continue to limit opportunities for women. The article uses secondary data to highlight these issues and offers strategies for policymakers and institutions to create more equitable and transformative higher education systems.

An extensive field of research identifies girls’ secondary education as central to improving human and economic development. Despite improvements in girls’ secondary education enrollment, there are still over 34 million female adolescents out of school—the majority in developing nations. While gender equity in education has improved, girls still lag behind boys in secondary education enrollments. Building on existing research, we argue that the failures of education spending in creating equitable access to secondary education are due to a lack of governance. We contend that strong governance has the potential to increase the effectiveness of education expenditures at improving female secondary education relative to males. Using two-way fixed effects models for a sample of 105 low and middle-income nations from 1997 to 2012, we examine how the interaction between four measures of governance and education expenditures impact gender equity in secondary education. Our findings suggest that governance increases the effectiveness of education expenditures in improving girls’ secondary education enrollment compared to males.

This chapter presents a case study of gender equity in education policy and practice in The Gambia, a small but densely populated country in West Africa that has been among those countries where remarkable strides in girls’ education have been achieved, supported by the formulation and enforcement of policies, strategies, and frameworks that promote the attainment of the right to education for all. Using Unterhalter’s (2007) conceptual framing of gender equity in education policy orientations (interventionist/institutional/interactive) our central objective is to better understand the reasons behind the apparent Gambian success story, but also to suggest the limits of and remaining challenges for gender equity policy and programing in the country. Two related arguments are made. First, that the Gambia case illustrates the importance of a multidimensional policy approach to addressing gender-based inequalities in education. Second, we argue that The Gambia case also illustrates Unterhalter’s claim that while the strategies associated with interventionist/instrumentalist and institutional approaches may be necessary, they are nonetheless insufficient if we want to connect and pursue gender equity in education as a matter of social justice, and not merely for its assumed socioeconomic benefits.

Gender disparities in access to education remain a major challenge in Rumonge District, raising questions about the effectiveness of school-based counselling services in promoting gender equity. This study explored stakeholders’ perceptions on effectiveness of counselling services in enhancing gender equity in access to education. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were collected through surveys with students and interviews with headteachers and key informants. This study was guided by the health belief model and liberal theory which explain how counselling influences learners’ access, retention, and progression in education. Findings indicated that counselling positively affected educational outcomes, with 62.4% of students reporting increased motivation to stay in school, 76.1% noting smoother transitions to higher levels, and 64.2% recognizing improved retention for both genders. Counselling was critical in addressing barriers such as early pregnancy and socio-cultural pressures affecting girls; however, its effectiveness was limited by shortages of trained personnel, irregular services, and inadequate facilities as reported by stakeholders. Strengthening professional capacity, institutional support, and resource allocation is essential to maximize the role of counselling in enhancing gender equity in education.