A Corona Australis cloud filament seen in NIR scattered light

Context. LDN 1642 is a rare example of a star-forming, high-latitude molecular cloud. The dust emission of LDN 1642 has already been studied extensively in the past, but its location also makes it a good target for studies of light scattering. Aims. We wish to study the near-infrared (NIR) light scattering in LDN 1642, its correlation with the cloud structure, and the ability of dust models to simultaneously explain observations of sub-millimetre dust emission, NIR extinction, and NIR scattering. Methods. We used observations made with the HAWK-I instrument to measure the NIR surface brightness and extinction in LDN 1642. These data were compared with Herschel observations of dust emission and, with the help of radiative transfer modelling, with the predictions calculated for different dust models. Results. We find, for LDN 1642, an optical depth ratio τ(250 μm)∕τ(J) ≈ 10−3, confirming earlier findings of enhanced sub-millimetre emissivity. The relationships between the column density derived from dust emission and the NIR colour excesses are linear and consistent with the shape of the standard NIR extinction curve. The extinction peaks at AJ = 2.6 mag, and the NIR surface brightness remains correlated with N(H2) without saturation. Radiative transfer models are able to fit the sub-millimetre data with any of the tested dust models. However, these predict an NIR extinction that is higher and an NIR surface brightness that is lower than based on NIR observations. If the dust sub-millimetre emissivity is rescaled to the observed value of τ(250 μm)∕τ(J), dust models with high NIR albedo can reach the observed level of NIR surface brightness. The NIR extinction of the models tends to be higher than in the direct extinction measurements, which is also reflected in the shape of the NIR surface brightness spectra. Conclusions. The combination of emission, extinction, and scattering measurements provides strong constraints on dust models. The observations of LDN 1642 indicate clear dust evolution, including a strong increase in the sub-millimetre emissivity, which has not been fully explained by the current dust models yet.

\n Context.With current wide-field near-infrared (NIR) instruments the scattered light\nin the near-infrared can be mapped over large areas. Below $A_{\\rm V}\\sim\n10$ mag the surface brightness is directly proportional to the column\ndensity, and at slightly higher column densities the saturation of the\nintensity values can be corrected using the ratios of the intensity in\ndifferent NIR bands. Therefore, NIR scattered light provides a promising new\nmethod for the mapping of quiescent interstellar clouds.\n Aims.We develop a method to convert the observed near-infrared surface brightness\ninto estimates of the column density. We study and quantify the effect\nthat different error sources could have on the accuracy of such estimates.\nWe also propose to reduce systematic errors by combining surface brightness\ndata with extinction measurements derived from the near-infrared colour excess\nof background stars.\n Methods.Our study is based on a set of three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic\nturbulence simulations. Maps of near-infrared scattered light are obtained \nwith radiative transfer calculations, and the maps are converted back into \ncolumn density estimates using the proposed method. The results are compared \nwith the true column densities. Extinction measurements are simulated using \nthe same turbulence simulations, and are used as a complementary column density \ntracer.\n Results.We find that NIR intensities can be converted into a reliable estimate of \nthe column density in regions with AV up to almost 20 mag. We show \nthat the errors can be further reduced with detailed radiative transfer modelling \nand especially by using the lower resolution information available through the \ncolour excess data.\n Conclusions.We urge the observers to try this new method out in practice.\n

Context. Light scattering at near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths has been used to study the optical properties of the interstellar dust grains, but these studies are limited by the assumptions on the strength of the radiation field. On the other hand, thermal dust emission can be used to constrain the properties of the radiation field, although this is hampered by uncertainty about the dust emissivity. Aims. Combining light scattering and emission studies allows us to probe the properties of the dust grains in detail. We wish to study if current dust models allow us to model a molecular cloud simultaneously in the NIR and far-infrared (FIR) wavelengths and compare the results with observations. Our aim is to place constraints on the properties of the dust grains and the strength of the radiation field. Methods. We present computations of dust emission and scattered light of a quiescent molecular cloud LDN1512. We use NIR observations covering the J, H, and KS bands, and FIR observations between 250 and 500 μm from the Herschel space telescope. We constructed radiative transfer models for LDN1512 that include an anisotropic radiation field and a three-dimensional cloud model. Results. We are able to reproduce the observed FIR observations, with a radiation field derived from the DIRBE observations, with all of the tested dust models. However, with the same density distribution and the assumed radiation field, the models fail to reproduce the observed NIR scattering in all cases except for models that take into account dust evolution via coagulation and mantle formation. The intensity from the diffuse interstellar medium like, dust models can be increased to match the observed one by reducing the derived density, increasing the intensity of the background sky and the strength of the radiation field between factors from two to three. We find that the column densities derived from our radiative transfer modelling can differ by a factor of up to two, compared to the column densities derived from the observations with modified blackbody fits. The discrepancy in the column densities is likely caused because of a temperature difference between a modified blackbody fit and the real spectra. The difference between the fitted temperature and the true temperature could be as high as ΔT = +1.5 K. Conclusions. We show that the observed dust emission can be reproduced with several different assumptions about the properties of the dust grains. However, in order to reproduce the observed scattered surface brightness, dust evolution must be taken into account.

Mapping of near-infrared (NIR) scattered light is a recent method for the study of interstellar clouds, complementing other, more commonly used methods, like dust emission and extinction. Our goal is to study the usability of this method on larger scale, and compare the properties of a filament using NIR scattering and other methods. We also study the radiation field and differences in grain emissivity between diffuse and dense areas. We have used scattered J, H, and K band surface brightness WFCAM-observations to map filament TMC-1N in Taurus, covering an area of 1dx1d corresponding to ~(2.44 pc)^2. We have converted the data into optical depth and compared the results with NIR extinction and Herschel observations of submm dust emission. We see the filament in scattered light in all three NIR bands. We note that our WFCAM observations in TMC-1N show notably lower intensity than previous results in Corona Australis using the same method. We show that 3D radiative transfer simulations predict similar scattered surface brightness levels as seen in the observations. However, changing the assumptions about the background can change the results of simulations notably. We derive emissivity by using optical depth in the J band as an independent tracer of column density. We obtain opacity sigma(250um) values 1.7-2.4x10^-25 cm^2/H, depending on assumptions of the extinction curve, which can change the results by over 40%. These values are twice as high as obtained for diffuse areas, at the lower limit of earlier results for denser areas. We show that NIR scattering can be a valuable tool in making high resolution maps. We conclude, however, that NIR scattering observations can be complicated, as the data can show relatively low-level artefacts. This suggests caution when planning and interpreting the observations.

With Planck and Herschel, we now have the spectral coverage and angular resolution required to observe dense and cold molecular clouds. As these clouds are optically thick at short wavelength but optically thin at long wavelength, it is tricky to conclude anything about dust properties without a proper treatment of the radiative transfer (RT). Our aim is to disentangle the effects of RT and of dust properties on the variations in the dust emission to provide observers with keys to analyse the emission arising from dense clouds. We model cylindrical clouds, illuminated by the ISRF, and carry out full RT calculations. Dust temperatures are solved using DustEM for amorphous carbons and silicates, grains coated with carbon mantles, and mixed aggregates of carbon and silicate. We allow variations of the grain optical properties with wavelength and temperature. We determine observed colour temperatures, T, and emissivity spectral indices, beta, by fitting the dust emission with modified blackbodies, to compare our models with observations. RT effects can neither explain the low T nor the increased submm emissivity measured at the centre of dense clouds, nor the observed beta-T anti-correlation. Adding noise to the modelled data, we show that it is not likely to be the unique explanation for the beta-T anti-correlation observed in starless clouds. It may be explained by intrinsic variations in the grain optical properties with temperature. As for the increased submm emissivity and the low T, they have to originate in variations in the grain optical properties, probably caused by their growth to form porous aggregates. We find it difficult to track back the nature of grains from the spectral variations in their emission. Finally, the column density is underestimated when determined with blackbody fitting because of the discrepancy between T and the true dust temperature at the cloud centre.

This paper presents an all-sky model of dust emission from the Planck 353, 545, and 857 GHz, and IRAS 100 m data. Using a modified blackbody fit to the data we present all-sky maps of the dust optical depth, temperature, and spectral index over the 353-3000 GHz range. This model is a good representation of the IRAS and Planck data at 5 between 353 and 3000 GHz (850 and 100 m). It shows variations of the order of 30% compared with the widely-used model of Finkbeiner, Davis, and Schlegel. The Planck data allow us to estimate the dust temperature uniformly over the whole sky, down to an angular resolution of 5 , providing an improved estimate of the dust optical depth compared to previous all-sky dust model, especially in high-contrast molecular regions where the dust temperature varies strongly at small scales in response to dust evolution, extinction, and/or local production of heating photons. An increase of the dust opacity at 353 GHz, 353 /N H , from the diffuse to the denser interstellar medium (ISM) is reported. It is associated with a decrease in the observed dust temperature, T obs , that could be due at least in part to the increased dust opacity. We also report an excess of dust emission at H column densities lower than 10 20 cm -2 that could be the signature of dust in the warm ionized medium. In the diffuse ISM at high Galactic latitude, we report an anticorrelation between 353 /N H and T obs while the dust specific luminosity, i.e., the total dust emission integrated over frequency (the radiance) per hydrogen atom, stays about constant, confirming one of the Planck Early Results obtained on selected fields. This effect is compatible with the view that, in the diffuse ISM, T obs responds to spatial variations of the dust opacity, due to variations of dust properties, in addition to (small) variations of the radiation field strength. The implication is that in the diffuse high-latitude ISM 353 is not as reliable a tracer of dust column density as we conclude it is in molecular clouds where the correlation of 353 with dust extinction estimated using colour excess measurements on stars is strong. To estimate Galactic E(B -V) in extragalactic fields at high latitude we develop a new method based on the thermal dust radiance, instead of the dust optical depth, calibrated to E(B-V) using reddening measurements of quasars deduced from Sloan Digital Sky Survey data.

We study the two-dimensional surface brightness distribution of the Galactic X-ray background emission outside the central degree around Sgr A* in the 6.7-keV line as measured by the Proportional Counter Array spectrometer of the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer observatory. The use of the emission line instead of continuum (3–20 keV) radiation and application of time-variability filtering to the long data set allows us to strongly suppress the contamination of the Galactic ridge X-ray emission (GRXE) map by bright point-sources. The surface brightness in the 6.7-keV line demonstrates very good correspondence with the near-infrared surface brightness over the whole Galaxy, supporting the notion that the GRXE consists mostly of integrated emission from weak Galactic X-ray sources. We find compatible linear correlations between near-infrared and 6.7-keV surface brightness for the bulge and disc of the Galaxy. This indicates that the populations of weak X-ray sources making up the GRXE in the disc and in the bulge are not significantly different.

Near-infrared surface photometry of bulges and disks of spiral galaxies. The data

I report on the capabilities of the near-infrared (near-IR) surface brightness technique to predict reliable stellar angular diameters as accurate as ≲2 per cent using standard broad-band Johnson photometry in the colour range −0.1 ⩽ (V-K)O ⩽ 3.7 including stars of A, F, G, K spectral type. This empirical approach is fast to apply and leads to estimated photometric diameters in very good agreement with recent high-precision interferometric diameter measurements available for non-variable dwarfs and giants, as well as for Cepheid variables. Then I compare semi-empirical diameters predicted by model-dependent photometric and spectrophotometric (SP) methods with near-IR surface brightness diameters adopted as empirical reference calibrators. The overall agreement between all these methods is within approximately ±5 per cent, confirming previous works. However, on the same scale of accuracy, there is also evidence for systematic shifts presumably as a result of an incorrect representation of the stellar effective temperature in the model-dependent results. I also compare measurements of spectroscopic radii with near-IR surface brightness radii of Cepheids with known distances. Spectroscopic radii are found to be affected by a scatter as significant as ≳9 per cent, which is at least three times greater than the formal error currently claimed by the spectroscopic technique. In contrast, pulsation radii predicted by the period-radius (PR) relation according to the Cepheid period result are significantly less dispersed, indicating a quite small scatter as a result of the finite width of the Cepheid instability strip, as expected from pulsation theory. The resulting low level of noise strongly confirms our previous claims that the pulsation parallaxes are the most accurate empirical distances presently available for Galactic and extragalactic Cepheids.

Infrared dark clouds (IRDCs) are cold and dense reservoirs of gas potentially available to form stars. Many of these clouds are likely to be pristine structures representing the initial conditions for star formation. The study presented here aims to construct and analyze accurate column density and dust temperature maps of IRDCs by using the first <i>Herschel<i/> data from the Hi-GAL galactic plane survey. These fundamental quantities, are essential for understanding processes such as fragmentation in the early stages of the formation of stars in molecular clouds. We have developed a simple pixel-by-pixel SED fitting method, which accounts for the background emission. By fitting a grey-body function at each position, we recover the spatial variations in both the dust column density and temperature within the IRDCs. This method is applied to a sample of 22 IRDCs exhibiting a range of angular sizes and peak column densities. Our analysis shows that the dust temperature decreases significantly within IRDCs, from background temperatures of 20–30 K to minimum temperatures of 8–15 K within the clouds, showing that dense molecular clouds are not isothermal. Temperature gradients have most likely an important impact on the fragmentation of IRDCs. Local temperature minima are strongly correlated with column density peaks, which in a few cases reach = 1×10<sup>23<sup/> cm<sup>-2<sup/>, identifying these clouds as candidate massive prestellar cores. Applying this technique to the full Hi-GAL data set will provide important constraints on the fragmentation and thermal properties of IRDCs, and help identify hundreds of massive prestellar core candidates.

Aims. We have explored the capabilities of dust extinction and γ rays to probe the properties of the interstellar medium in the nearby anti-centre region. In particular, we aim at quantifying the variations of the dust properties per gas nucleon across the different gas phases and different clouds. The comparison of dust extinction and emission properties with other physical quantities of large grains (emission spectral index β, dust colour temperature Tdust, total-to-selective extinction factor RV) helps the theoretical modelling of grains as they evolve from diffuse to dense cloud environments. Methods. We have jointly modelled the γ-ray intensity, recorded between 0.4 and 100 GeV with the Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT), and the stellar reddening, E(B − V), inferred from Pan-STARRS and 2MASS photometry, as a combination of HI-bright, CO-bright, and ionised gas components. The complementary information from dust reddening and γ rays is used to reveal the gas not seen, or poorly traced, by HI, free-free, and 12CO emissions, namely (i) the opaque HI and diffuse H2 present in the dark neutral medium (DNM) at the atomic-molecular transition, and (ii) the dense H2 to be added where 12CO lines saturate (COsat). We compare the total gas column densities, NH, derived from the γ rays and stellar reddening with those inferred from a similar, previously published analysis of γ rays and of the optical depth of the thermal dust emission, τ353, at 353 GHz. We can therefore compare environmental variations in specific dust reddening, E(B − V)∕NH, and in dust emission opacity (dust optical depth per gas nucleon), τ353∕NH. Results. The gas column densities obtained when combining γ rays with either dust reddening or dust emission compare reasonably well in the atomic and DNM gas phases and over most of the CO-bright phase, but we find localised differences in the dense media (COsat component) due to differences in the two dust tracers. Over the whole anti-centre region, we find an average E(B − V)∕NH ratio of (2.02 ± 0.48) ×10−22 mag cm2, with maximum local variations of about ± 30% at variance with the two to six fold coincident increase seen in emission opacity as the gas column density increases. We show how the specific reddening and opacity vary with the colour temperature and spectral index of the thermal emission of the large grains. Additionally, we find a better agreement between the XCO = N(H2)/WCO conversion factors derived with dust reddening or with γ rays than with those inferred from dust emission, especially towards clouds with large τ353 optical depths. The comparison confirms that the high XCO values found with dust emission are biased by the significant rise in emission opacity inside molecular clouds. Conclusions. In the diffuse medium, we find only small variations in specific reddening, E(B − V)∕NH, compatible with the dispersion in the RV factor reported by other studies. This implies a relatively uniform dust-to-gas mass ratio in the diffuse parts of the anti-centre clouds. The small amplitude of the E(B − V)∕NH variations with increasing NH column density confirms that the large opacity τ353∕NH rise seen towards dense CO clouds is primarily due to changes in dust emissivity. The environmental changes are qualitatively compatible with model predictions based on mantle accretion on the grains and the formation of grain aggregates.

Tiny, dense clumps of sub-solar mass called globulettes form in giant galactic HII regions. The young central clusters compress the surrounding molecular shells which break up into clumps, filaments, and elephant trunks that interact with UV light from the central OB stars. We study the nature of the infrared emission and extinction in the shell and globulettes in the Rosette Nebula (RN) and search for associated newborn stars. We imaged the northwestern quadrant of the RN in the near-infrared (NIR) through JHKs and narrow-band H2 1-0 S(1), Pbeta and continuum filters. NIR images were used to study the surface brightness of the globulettes and associated bright rims. NIR photometry was used to create an extinction map and to search for NIR excess objects. Archival images from Spitzer IRAC and MIPS 24 and Herschel PACS observations were used to further study the region and its stellar population and to examine the structure of the shell and trunks. The globulettes and elephant trunks have bright rims in the Ks band on the sides facing the central cluster. Analysis of 21 globulettes where surface brightness in the H2 1-0 S(1) line is detected shows that about a third of the surface brightness observed in Ks is due to this line: the observed average of the H2/Ks surface brightness is 0.26+-0.02 in the globulettes cores and 0.30+-0.01 in the rims. The estimated H2 1-0 S(1) surface brightness of the rims is 3-8*10^{-8} Wm^{-2}sr^{-1}um^{-1}. The H2/Ks surface brightness ratio supports fluorescence as the H2 excitation mechanism. The globulettes have number densities of n(H2)~10^{-4} cm^{-3} or higher. We confirm the results from previous optical and CO surveys that the larger globulettes contain very dense cores and dense envelopes, and that their masses are sub-solar. Two NIR protostellar objects were found in an elephant trunk and one in the most massive globulette in our study. (abridged)

We present a method of mapping the dust column density in dark clouds by using near-infrared scattered light. Our observations of the Lupus 3 dark cloud indicate that there is a well-defined relation between (1) the $H-K_{\rm s}$ color of an individual star behind the cloud, i.e., the dust column density and (2) the surface brightness of scattered light toward the star in each of the $J, H$, and $K_{\rm s}$ bands. In the relation, the surface brightnesses increase at low $H-K_{\rm s}$ colors, then saturate and decrease with increasing $H-K_{\rm s}$. Using a simple one-dimensional radiation transfer model, we derive empirical equations that plausibly represent the observed relationship between the surface brightness and the dust column density. Using the empirical equations, we estimate the dust column density of the cloud for any direction toward which even no background stars are seen. We obtain a dust column density map with a pixel scale of 2$^{\prime\prime}$.3 $\times$ 2$^{\prime\prime}$.3 and a large dynamic range of up to $A_V =$ 50 mag. Compared to previous studies by Juvela et al. (2006, A&amp;A, 457, 877; 2008, A&amp;A, 480, 445), this study is the first to use the color excess of background stars for calibrating the empirical relationship and to apply it beyond the point where the surface brightness starts to decrease with increasing column density.

We determine the near-infrared Fundamental Plane (FP) for $\sim10^4$ early-type galaxies in the 6dF Galaxy Survey (6dFGS). We fit the distribution of central velocity dispersion, near-infrared surface brightness and half-light radius with a three-dimensional Gaussian model using a maximum likelihood method. For the 6dFGS $J$ band sample we find a FP with $R_{e}$\,$\propto$\,$\sigma_0^{1.52\pm0.03}I_{e}^{-0.89\pm0.01}$, similar to previous near-IR determinations and consistent with the $H$ and $K$ band Fundamental Planes once allowance is made for differences in mean colour. The overall scatter in $R_e$ about the FP is $\sigma_r$,=,29%, and is the quadrature sum of an 18% scatter due to observational errors and a 23% intrinsic scatter. Because of the distribution of galaxies in FP space, $\sigma_r$ is not the distance error, which we find to be $\sigma_d$,=,23%. Using group richness and local density as measures of environment, and morphologies based on visual classifications, we find that the FP slopes do not vary with environment or morphology. However, for fixed velocity dispersion and surface brightness, field galaxies are on average 5% larger than galaxies in higher-density environments, and the bulges of early-type spirals are on average 10% larger than ellipticals and lenticulars. The residuals about the FP show significant trends with environment, morphology and stellar population. The strongest trend is with age, and we speculate that age is the most important systematic source of offsets from the FP, and may drive the other trends through its correlations with environment, morphology and metallicity.

Thin and thick disks are found in most spiral galaxies, yet their formation scenarios remain uncertain. Whether thick disks form through slow or fast, internal or environmental, processes is unclear. The physical origin of outer truncations in thin and thick disks, observed as a drop in optical and near-infrared (NIR) surface brightness profiles, is also a much debated topic. These truncations have been linked to star formation (SF) thresholds in Milky-Way-type galaxies, but no such connection has been made for their low-mass counterparts or in thick disks. Our photometric analysis of the edge-on galaxy UGC 7321 offers a possible breakthrough. This well-studied diffuse, isolated, bulgeless, ultra-thin galaxy is thought to be under-evolved both dynamically and in SF. It is an ideal target for disentangling internal effects in the formation of thick disks and truncations. Our axial light profiles from deep far- and near-ultraviolet (GALEX) images, tracing recent SF, and optical (DESI grz) and NIR (Spitzer 3.6 μm) images, tracing old stellar populations, enable a detailed identification of an outer truncation in all probed wavelengths in both the thin and thick disks. After deprojecting to a face-on view, a sharp truncation signature is found at a stellar density of 1.5 ± 0.5 ℳ⊙ pc−2, in agreement with theoretical expectations of gas density SF thresholds. The redder colours beyond the truncation radius are indicative of stellar migration towards the outer regions. We thus show that thick disks and truncations can form via internal mechanisms alone, given the pristine nature of UGC 7321. We report the discovery of a truncation at and above the mid-plane of a diffuse galaxy that is linked to a SF threshold; this poses a constraint on physically motivated disk size measurements among low-mass galaxies.