A Content Analysis of Sexual Consent and Refusal Communication in Mainstream Films

People communicate their sexual consent using cues that are explicit or implicit and verbal or nonverbal; implicit or nonverbal consent cues are the most common strategies. As a sexual educator, mass media may provide young people with models of sexual consent that are inconsistent with the explicit verbal cues endorsed by some legal and educational advocates. Guided by Social Cognitive Theory, we examined the effects of film rating on how mainstream films model sexual consent communication and on whether they positively reinforce implicit or nonverbal consent cues. We conducted a content analysis of popular films from 2013 (n = 49) using a codebook that was developed with an inductive process and demonstrated strong inter-rater reliability. Films rated PG-13 depicted characters that were younger than those in films rated R. Further, films rated R more frequently modeled sexual behavior without any preceding consent communication cues. All films tended to rely on implicit or nonverbal models of consent communication; however, these cues were more frequently positively reinforced with consensual sexual behaviors in films rated PG-13 than in those rated R. Because young people are primarily exposed to implicit or nonverbal sexual consent cues in films, they may continue to adopt these types of communication—despite efforts from formal sexual educators to encourage explicit verbal consent cues.

Objectives: College students believe that they are supposed to be explicit and verbal in their sexual consent communication. We examined various contexts to determine when sexual consent is likely to be communicated explicitly and verbally. Method: We surveyed U.S. college students’ (n = 707) sexual consent communication. Results: We identified contexts when explicit verbal consent cues are less likely—when the person is a woman, when the sexual relationship is casual, and when the sexual behavior is not vaginal-penile intercourse. Conclusions: If sexual consent is contextual, that means communicating consent should not ever be taken for granted.

Sexual consent research often focuses on how those who identify as heterosexual communicate consent, with limited research examining how sexual minority (SM) men communicate consent. Factors that influence how people communicate consent – such as the type of sexual behaviour being consented to and the relationship status of those engaged in sexual behaviour – is understudied among SM men. The purpose of this exploratory study was to assess how SM men communicate sexual consent and examine if these factors influence how men consent to sex. SM men (N = 234) were recruited from social media and Qualtrics’ panel. Participants completed an open-ended survey assessing how consent was communicated during oral and anal sex and who their partner was during this encounter. Responses were analysed using an inductive coding approach. Six overarching consent cues emerged: Explicit Verbal, Explicit Nonverbal, No-Response, Implicit Nonverbal, Virtual Consent and Implicit Verbal. Sexual consent communication appeared to vary by sexual behaviour and relationship status. Overall, SM men and people who identify as heterosexual appear to communicate sexual consent similarly; however, some new cues emerged for SM men. Consent education initiatives should consider findings from more diverse populations when discussing sexual consent to take a more inclusive approach to sexual health education.

People’s beliefs about sexual consent can have far-reaching consequences, from forming opinions about a sexual assault case while serving as a juror to attending to a partner’s verbal and nonverbal consent cues during a sexual encounter. In this study, we examined the extent to which sexism, attitudes towards sexual consent, and sexual consent norms predict perceptions of risk related to sexual consent communication, or more specifically, the absence of sexual consent communication. Undergraduate students (N = 217) participated in an online survey study. Results revealed that participants’ attitudes towards sexual consent mediated the relationship between sexism and perceived risk. That is, people with sexist beliefs were less likely to evaluate sexual consent behaviours in a positive way, and in turn, these negative evaluations of sexual consent were associated with lower risk perceptions.

Consent Communication (Portrayals of Sexuality in Pornography)

Substance use can occur prior to nonconsensual and consensual sexual activity and affect how sexual consent is communicated and felt. Yet, researchers’ understanding of how substance use relates to these sexual experiences is still developing. Few researchers examine these behaviors among the intersection of sexual minority (SM) identity and gender. The goal of this study was to assess if experiences of nonconsensual and consensual substance-involved sexual activity, consent communication and feelings varied by the intersection of SM identity and identifying as a woman. Participants were recruited from a Prolific Academic panel to complete a survey about their substance use, sexual experiences, and sexual consent. SM persons and SM women reported more nonconsensual and consensual substance involved sexual experiences than heterosexual participants and SM men. Consent communication and feelings did not differ by across groups. Prevention initiatives for substance use and sexual activity may want to take an intersectional approach that addresses why different subgroups are at elevated risk to coalesce these two behaviors. Because consent feelings and communication did not differ by SM identity and gender, consent initiatives should expand their discussion to be inclusive of SM as these initiatives are often presented within a heteronormative framework.

Objective College students may not view sexual consent communication while under the influence of substances (i.e., alcohol and drugs) as problematic if media models the co-occurrence of these behaviors. The purpose of this study was to assess the types of consent cues used by characters who are and are not under the influence of substances in mainstream films. Method: Four researchers inductively analyzed popular mainstream films (N = 50). Films were assessed for substance use and consent communication cues. Results: Characters using substances were depicted using implicit verbal and explicit nonverbal consent cues more than characters who had not used substances. Conclusion: Films may perpetuate cultural narratives that substance use can be part of the consent process and that consent is communicated differently when people have used substances. Prevention programs could include media literacy to address misleading messages college students may internalize about substance use and sexual consent communication.

Sex Acts (Portrayals of Sexuality in Pornography)

Sexual consent is one's voluntary, sober, and conscious willingness to engage in a particular sexual behavior with a particular person within a particular context. Sexual precedent theory posits that people believe that engaging in consensual sex at one point in time implies consent to later sexual encounters with that person. By assuming consent once a sexual precedent is set, people may rely less on communication cues. We sought to provide quantitative support for the claim that sexual precedent influences sexual consent in people's sexual relationships. To capture variability across sexual experiences, we collected daily sexual behavior data from each participant (n = 84) over a period of 30 days. We found a curvilinear relationship between sexual history with a partner and how people perceived consent during sexual activity with that partner (p = .003, ∆R2 = .089). A piecewise regression revealed that participants were less likely to report consent communication cues as sexual precedent increased until about 575 previous sexual behaviors (p = .003, R2 = .122); after this point, participants were more likely to report consent communication cues as sexual precedent increased (p = .028, R2 = .179). Overall, we provide the first quantitative evidence that consent conceptualization varies both within the person and across relationships regarding sexual precedent. In our discussion, we emphasize that sexual consent is contextual and cannot be assumed even after previous sexual encounters.

Despite the notion that sexual consent is either granted or refused, its communication can sometimes be ambiguous. This uncertainty stems from the tendency to rely on implicit, nonverbal cues to indicate consent. Without clear, explicit communication, people might be encouraged to rely upon contextual information when assessing whether a sexual encounter was consensual. Perceived levels of intimacy and familiarity in a relationship might influence these perceptions, such that prior intimacy might lead to ambiguously communicated consent being interpreted as more consensual. Gender roles can dictate the behaviors expected in a sexual encounter, with female-initiated sexual violence against men potentially being perceived as more consensual than the inverse. The current study examined how relationship type (Experiments 1 and 2) and gender pairing (Experiment 2) influenced participants' perceptions of how consensual various sexual encounters were. Participants read a series of vignettes in which sexual consent was verbally granted, verbally rejected, or inferred using nonverbal cues. Additionally, the dyads' relationships were either described as dating, friends, or strangers. Following vignette presentation, participants provided judgments regarding how consensual the interactions were. Experiment 2 expanded upon this by manipulating the gender of the initiators and targets. When consent was not clearly indicated, more established relationships were associated with higher ratings of perceived consent. Male targets were attributed more responsibility for sexual interactions, and they were also believed to want nonconsensual sex more than female targets. These findings highlight the importance of contextual information in instances where sexual consent is unclear.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)%%%%Sexting has been linked to a range of sexual behaviors, including sexual assault; however, the mechanism through which sexting increases the risk for sexual assault is unknown. One explanation for the role of sexting in sexual assault could be due to gender differences in sexting and sexual communication. The current study examined men’s and women’s perceptions of sexting as a form of communicating sexual intent and sexual consent, and how sexting influences attributions of responsibility and blame in sexual encounters and alleged sexual assault. Additionally, considering the role of alcohol in sexual assault, the study also examined how both sexting and alcohol influenced individuals’ perceptions of a sexual scenario. Method:Using a factorial vignette design, N = 525 college students (48.6% women; 71% Caucasian) were randomly assigned to one of four vignettes regarding a sexual scenario between a man and woman (John and Jennifer), with sexting and/or alcohol involved. Results: Significant differences in sexting vs. texting conditions were seen for perceptions of sexual intent (F = 147.28, p< .01) and sexual consent (F = 105.86, p< .01). Men were more likely to perceive that sexual consent was exchanged (F = 9.16, p< .01) and to interpret the sext as a consent cue (F = 7.82, p< .01). John was attributed more responsibility/blame across all conditions (F = 154.58, p< .01); however, Jennifer was attributed more blame in the sexting conditions (F = 9.16, p< .01). Conclusion: Results suggest that despite sexting as a signal of sexual interest, there are differences in how men and women perceive sexting as sexual consent, which may influence the risk for sexual assault. Additionally, there are differential effects of sexting for men vs. women, such that women may be judged more harshly for sexting, suggesting evidence of the sexual double standard. Results offer important implications for sexual assault prevention and sexual gender roles.

Examining how adolescents understand the concept of sexual consent, and expect to garner or confer consent in sexual encounters, can contribute to the design of age- and developmentally appropriate prevention programs that promote healthy adolescent dating and sexual relationships. The current qualitative study utilized semi-structured in-depth interviews (N = 33) to explore perceptions of sexual consent among high school students (ages 14-18). Thematic analysis identified three salient themes pertaining to (a) the definition of consent as indicating a verbal "yes" to engage in sexual activity, (b) beliefs that an array of verbal and nonverbal strategies would be utilized to garner or convey consent in actual sexual encounters, and (c) expectations that consent would be communicated differently following an initial sexual encounter. Specifically, whereas consent was defined as a verbal provision of affirmative consent, both male and female adolescents believed girls typically conveyed consent nonverbally in sexual encounters. Adolescent girls indicated that they would convey sexual refusal through nonverbal cues, whereas adolescent boys reported they would proceed with sexual activity until they heard the verbal expression of "no." Regardless of gender, participants shared the perception that adolescents who previously engaged in sexual activity can expect that sexual activity will happen again without the need for verbal consent, particularly within established relationships. These findings highlight important discrepancies in adolescents' definition of sexual consent-primarily through verbal consent-and how they behaviorally indicated sexual consent and sexual refusal-primarily through nonverbal actions.

Sexual consent is a critical component of healthy sexual relationships and essential for preventing intimate partner sexual violence (IPSV), a significant public health and human rights concern in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Evidence on how adolescents and young people (AYP) aged 15–24 years understand and negotiate consent, however, remains fragmented. This systematic review synthesizes evidence on how AYP in SSA perceived and communicate sexual consent and the key factors shaping sexual consent negotiation. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, a comprehensive search was conducted across nine databases (e.g. PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus). The review included 48 studies published between 1997 and 2023. Data were extracted using a structured template and narratively synthesized. Findings indicate that AYP conceptualized consent as an expression of willingness and a mutual agreement to engage in sexual activity, often communicated implicitly through non-verbal cues or contextual behaviors rather than explicit verbal agreement. Consent negotiation is shaped by the interplay of socio-cultural norms, gendered expectations, and power asymmetries related to gender, age, and economic status, alongside structural constraints. Additional influences include the type of relationship, nature of sexual activity, peer pressure, and alcohol use. Sexual compliance or consent without desire is frequently reported, reflecting significant limitations of individual agencies and the complex social and relational factors that shape consent. Emerging resistance and shifts toward affirmative consent highlight the potential for targeted interventions. Multi-level interventions are needed to promote affirmative consent, challenge harmful gender norms, and address structural and economic vulnerabilities that shape inequitable sexual relationships.

IntroductionNotions of effective sexual communication and consent have shifted towards an enthusiastic consent framework. This study explored how young cisgender heterosexual men and women apply these concepts in casual sexual encounters.MethodsSix single-gender and mixed gender focus groups of 44 participants were conducted with young cisgender heterosexual men and women living in Australia in 2021. Participants were asked about their dating and sexual practices, as well as their understanding and navigation of sexual communication and sexual consent practices using vignette methodologies. Findings were analysed using interpretive phenomenological analysis techniques.ResultsThe findings highlight tensions between how participants understand what constitutes good practices of sexual communication and consent, and how they expected characters in the vignettes, or themselves, to engage in similar scenarios. These involved (1) gendered power dynamics in sexual encounters; (2) the need for context in universal assumptions; and (3) differences between expectations and personal actions in similar scenarios.ConclusionsThe participants express a high degree of knowledge of what constitutes best practice for sexual communication and sexual consent. However, such knowledge is not necessarily engaged in their lived experiences of sex for a variety of reasons.Policy ImplicationsWhile current educational and health promotion methods for topics such as sexual communication and consent are valuable, they may be limited in efficacy. Sexual encounters are often complex, and are influenced by culture, religion, and various emotions. Decision-making in such situations involves known and unknown variables. A deeper understanding of these processes is needed to develop more nuanced resources.

This study investigated how social media use, specifically exposure to and posting of sexualized and party-related content on social media and interpretations of that content as sexual consent communication, related to college students’ intentions to engage in sexual consent communication. A national sample of U.S. college students ( N = 954) completed the relevant measures in an online survey. Results indicated that the more college students reported exposure to sexualized and party-related content on social media, the more likely they were to report posting similar content and believe in harmful consent myths (i.e., that a person’s sexual consent can be assumed by looking at their social media profiles). Posting sexualized and party-related content on social media was also related to lesser intentions to engage in consent communication. These findings provide evidence for the importance of considering social media use in how college students understand sexual consent communication that may be used to inform future sexual consent education on college campuses.