A Close Encounter with Personal Bias: Pedagogical Implications for Teacher Education

Abstract

Between 1988 and 2008, the number of White children in K-12 public schools in the United States dropped from 68.3 % to 55.5 % (Aud, Fox & KewalRamani, 2010). Currently, in the 67 large urban districts that comprise the Council of Great City Schools, only 20% of students are White (Council of Great City Schools, 2013). As the public school population becomes more diverse racially, ethnically, and linguistically, we continue to prepare a majority of White, female teachers for our nation's schools. Never before have there been so many children entering schools populated by teachers who reflect neither their race, language, nor the communities from which they come (NCES, 2007). To compound the challenge, there is research to suggest that high quality teachers actively avoid schools with a large percentage of minority students (Jackson, 2009).An Achievement GapThese shifting demographics directly inform unequal patterns of achievement among the nation's children. There continues to be an achievement gap of tremendous proportion for culturally and linguistically diverse children (Hemphill & Vanneman, 2010; Vanneman et al., 2009). In 2009, while 39% of White students scored at or above the proficient level on the reading portion of the National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP), scores for Black and Hispanic eighth graders were 13% and 16% respectively. Similarly, Black and Hispanic students were outpaced on the math portion of the NAEP, with proficient or above ratings at 12% and 17%, compared to 43% of White eighth graders (Council of Great City Schools, 2013). Explanations for the achievement gap have been posited over the last five decades. While some clearly cling to a cultural deficit perspective (Trueba, 1988; Valencia, 1997), others blame structural and institutional factors resulting in inequitable access to the teachers and schools most likely to impact educational success (Roscigno, Tomaskovic-Devey, & Crowley, 2006). Finally, cultural and environmental factors, including stereotype threat (Steele & Aronson, 1995), a cultural discontinuity between home and school (Graybill, 1997) and the low expectations of teachers (McKown & Weinstein, 2008) have further fueled the dialogue. While the root cause of these discrepancies in learning continues to be debated, it remains apparent that teacher education programs have a responsibility to equip candidates with the requisite knowledge, skills, and dispositions through which to most effectively engage all students in the process of equitable learning.TEACHER STEREOTYPES AND EXPECTATIONSStereotypical views and negative attitudes evidenced by teachers about students of color also raise considerable concern. Hinojosa and Moras (2009) compared teacher racial attitudes with those of similarly educated non-teachers, with discouraging results. This study consistently found that teachers out-scored their non-teacher counterparts on measures of bias, both in theory and in practice. Teachers in this study were more likely to favor laws against racial intermarriage, were less likely to live in neighborhoods where at least one-half of the population was African American, and were more likely to object to sending their child to a school that was mostly populated by African American students. Additional studies have documented teacher stereotypes relative to diverse populations of children and families. Pigott and Cowen (2000) found that both White and African American teachers rated African American students lower on competency, school adjustment, and future educational prognoses.These stereotypes can translate to lower expectations (Elhoweris et al., 2005; Terrill & Mark, 2000), which can impact the motivation of the learner (Baksh & Martin, 1984). Teacher expectations have been shown to correlate with disparity in practice (Brophy, 1983; McKown & Weinstein, 2008), creating an achievement differential (Goddard, Hoy, & Hoy, 2000), and thereby jeopardizing the notion of equity in education. …