43 Improved grazing system productivity, efficiency and sustainability through novel approaches

Chapter 1: Nutrient use efficiency in plants: an overview.- Part I: Nutrients as a Key Driver of Nutrient Use Efficiency.- Chapter 2: Soils and Inputs Management Options for Increasing Nutrient Use Efficiency.- Chapter 3: Nutrient and water use efficiency in soil: The influence of geological mineral amendments.- Chapter 4: Resource conserving techniques for improving nitrogen use-efficiency.- Chapter 5: Strategies for enhancing phosphorus efficiency in crop production systems.- Chapter 6: Efficiency of soil and fertilizer phosphorus use in time: a comparison between recovered struvite, FePO4-sludge, digestate, animal manure and synthetic fertilizer.- Chapter 7: Strategies for Enhancing Zinc Efficiency in Crop Plants.- Chapter 8: Nitrification inhibitors: classes and its use in nitrification management.- Part-II: Microbiological aspects of Nutrient Use Efficiency.- Chapter 9: Role of Microorganisms in Plant Nutrition and Health.- Chapter 10: Role of Cyanobacteria in Nutrient Cycle and Use Efficiency in the Soil.- Chapter 11: Trichoderma improves nutrient use efficiency in crop plants.- Chapter 12: Bio-priming mediated nutrient use efficiency of crop species.- Chapter 13: Unrealized potential of seed biopriming for versatile agriculture.- Part-III: Molecular and physiological aspects of Nutrient Use Efficiency.- Chapter 14: Improving nutrient use efficiency by exploiting genetic diversity of crops.- Chapter 15: Micro RNA based approach to improve nitrogen use efficiency in plants.- Chapter 16: Biofortification for selecting and developing crop cultivars denser in iron and zinc.- Chapter 17: Understanding genetic and molecular bases of Fe and Zn accumulation towards development of micronutrient enriched maize.- Part-IV: Nutrient Use Efficiency of Crop Species.- Chapter 18: Nitrogen uptake and use efficiency in rice.- Chapter 19: Nutrient-use efficiency in Sorghum.- Chapter 20: Improving nutrient use efficiency in oilseeds Brassica.- Chapter 21: Strategies for higher nutrient use efficiency and productivity in forage crops.- Chapter 22: Integrated nutrient management in potato for increasing nutrient use efficiency and sustainable productivity.- Part-V: Specialised Case Studies.- Chapter 23: Enhancing Nutrient Use Efficiencies in Rainfed Systems.- Chapter 24: Dynamics Of Plant Nutrients, Utilization And Uptake, And Soil Microbial Community In Crops Under Ambient And Elevated Carbon Dioxide.- Chapter 25: Phytometallophore Mediated Nutrient Acquisition by Plants.

Crop-livestock integration (CLI) is a significant practice for livestock grazing systems in alpine rangelands. It offers the potential to achieve sustainable crop and livestock production. However, the separate crop and livestock systems that exist today have led to issues of intensive agriculture, rangeland degradation and forage shortage in the Tibetan Plateau. Developing crop-livestock integration through sown pastures can be an effective way to lift pasture productivity and improve livestock production. Thus, to explore the potential for integrating crop and livestock production in alpine grazing systems, an assessment of potential forage and livestock production using multiple datasets was carried out in Burang County, China. Results showed the marginal land potentially available for sown pastures was about 560 ha, located mostly in the Burang township of the Karnali basin. Accumulated temperature was the dominant limiting factor for establishing sown pastures, therefore cold tolerance of forage species and growth period should be taken into consideration. Furthermore, the number of livestock decreased during the period 2012–2016; yet often, the number of livestock in rangeland landscape was greater than that in agro-pastoral landscape. The average number of livestock was about 110000 standard sheep units (SU) in the study area, but forage from sown pastures and crop residues could potentially feed about 11000 SU, accounting for 50% of the livestock population in the Karnali basin. We found that integrating crop and forage production could fill feed gaps for grazing systems, particularly in the agro-pastoral landscape of the Karnali basin. The results of this study provide scientific support to guide future forage production and to promote further crop and livestock integration in Burang County.

Abstract. Changes in agricultural subsidies in Europe and the ready availability of fertilizers have allowed a spatial decoupling of livestock and crop production. This has increased the flow of nutrients that occurs between farms compared to within individual farms. In terms of nutrient cycling, mixed farms provide the opportunity to re‐integrate aspects of agricultural production. The degree of integration between crop and livestock production is denned by the reliance on the use of home‐produced feed compared to imported feed, and is independent of intensity. Management of inputs and/or internal flows offers the scope to improve nutrient use efficiency (NUE) on mixed farms. Greatest uncertainties in calculating NUE are associated with variation in yield and composition of home‐produced feed, and consequent manure composition. Three key areas are addressed to highlight the interchange of nutrients (and risks for losses) between crop and livestock production; (i) the role of livestock diet in manipulating the amount and availability of manure nutrients; (ii) the impact of manure management on nutrient losses; and (iii) nutrient management through the integration of crops and livestock in rotations. While not all the associated issues are unique to mixed farming, these three areas all influence NUE.

Diet Selection by Cattle under High-Intensity Low-Frequency, Short Duration, and Merrill Grazing Systems

Kabuli chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important leguminous crop grown primarily for its large, light-colored seeds, rich in protein, dietary fiber, and essential minerals. Valued for its nutritional quality and high market demand, especially in international trade, Kabuli chickpea plays a key role in food security and farm income. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) plays a vital role in enhancing the productivity and sustainability of Kabuli chickpea cultivation, especially under degraded or sodic soil conditions. By combining organic, inorganic, and biological inputs, INM improves nutrient use efficiency, soil health, and crop yield. This holistic approach is crucial for maintaining long-term soil fertility and optimizing chickpea production in challenging agroecosystems. The field experiments were conducted at Agronomy research farm, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Ayodhya during the year of 2023-24, 2024-25 for integrated nutrient management of Kabuli chickpea crop. The experiment was laid in Randomized Block Design under three replications with 12 treatment combinations. This study seeks to evaluate the impact of different combinations of organic and inorganic nutrient sources on the nutrient use efficiency and yield of Kabuli chickpea cultivated in partially reclaimed sodic soils. The findings are anticipated to contribute to the formulation of sustainable nutrient management strategies for kabuli chickpea cultivation in degraded soil environments. The findings indicated that combining organic, inorganic, and biological nutrient source (T11) improved the nutrient use efficiency and yield of Kabuli chickpea cultivated in partially reclaimed sodic soils.

Forage production is affected by water deficit, but it is not known how grasses cope with dry periods during the rainy season and how irrigation can be used during dry periods in pastures. This field study analyzed the effects of water deficit during the spring-summer season on the nutritional, productive and morphological composition aspects of Mavuno and Zuri grasses, as well as the potential of irrigation to mitigate the damages caused by drought, using a randomized complete block design in a 2 × 2 factorial scheme, with two water conditions (rainfed and irrigated) and two forage grasses (Zuri and Mavuno). Water restriction impaired nutrient uptake and accumulation, and altered the C:N:P balance in Zuri and Mavuno grasses. Zuri grass was more tolerant to water deficit due to amino acid accumulation (62%), modifications in C:N:P: Si homeostasis, and maintenance of C and mineral nutrient use efficiency. Irrigation in Mavuno grass improved nutrient use efficiency, tillering, and forage production (41%), showing a positive response to irrigation. The morphological composition of forage improved under irrigated conditions for both forage species. Therefore, drought periods impair the production of sensitive grasses, and irrigation mitigates forage production losses during these water restriction periods in the spring-summer season.

Manureshed management-the strategic use of manure nutrients that prioritizes recycling between livestock systems and cropping systems-provides a comprehensive framework for sustainable nutrient management that necessitates the collaboration of many actors. Understanding the social dimensions of collaboration is critical to implement the strategic and technological requirements of functional manuresheds. To improve this understanding, we identified aspirational networks of actors involved in manureshed management across local, regional, and national scales, principally in the United States, elucidating key relationships and highlighting the breadth of interactions essential to successful manureshed management. We concluded that, although the social networks vary with scale, the involvement of a common core set of actors and relationships appears to be universal to the successful integration of modern livestock and crop production systems necessary for functional manuresheds. Our analysis also reveals that, in addition to agricultural producers, local actors in extension and advisory services and private and public sectors ensure optimal outcomes at all scales. For manureshed management to successfully integrate crop and livestock production and sustainably manage manure nutrient resources at each scale, the full complement of actors identified in these social networks is critical to generate innovation and ensure collaboration continuity.

In modern agriculture use of essential plant nutrients in crop production is very important to increase productivity and maintain sustainability of the cropping system. Use of nutrients in crop production is influenced by climatic, soil, plant, and social-economical condition of the farmers. Overall, nutrient use efficiency by crop plants is lower than 50 % under all agro-ecological conditions. Hence, large part of the applied nutrients is lost in the soil-plant system. The lower nutrient use efficiency is related to loss and/or unavailability due to many environmental factors. The low nutrient use efficiency is not only increase cost of crop production but also responsible for environmental pollution. Nutrient use efficiency in the literature is defined in several ways. The most common nutrient use efficiency is designated as nutrient efficiency ratio, agronomic efficiency, physiological efficiency, agrophysiological efficiency, apparent recovery efficiency, and utilization efficiency. Definition and methods of calculation of these deficiencies are presented. Improving nutrient use efficiency is essential from economic and environmental point of view. The most important strategies to improve nutrient use efficiency are the use of adequate rate, effective source, timing, and methods of application. In addition, decreasing abiotic and biotic stresses and use of nutrient efficient crop species and genotypes within species are also important in increasing nutrient use efficiency.

Improved nutrient management for crop production is a fundamental need for meeting the growing global demand for food, feed, fiber, and fuel and producing those crops in a way that is economically, environmentally, and socially sustainable. New technologies such as genetic manipulation and precision agriculture, along with traditional plant breeding, nutrient management, and conservation, are combined into the a global framework for nutrient best management practices (BMPs) to guide farmers and their advisers in meeting the nutrient needs of sustainable crop production. Nutrient management should be approached with the idea of improving nutrient use efficiency wherever possible. A combination of improved management systems, genetic developments, and technology, crop production systems in the USA as well as other parts of the world (see Vitale and Greenplate, Chap. 11; Borlaug et al., Chap. 12; Oikeh et al., Chap. 13) have improved efficiency for N, P, and K. Caution must be exercised to be sure the perceived increased efficiency is not achieved through mining of soil nutrient reserves (see Hatfield, Chap. 4). Progress toward improving nutrient use efficiency has been made in the USA and other parts of the world through improved genetics, better use of soil testing, and increased adoption of precision farming technologies. With systematic, site-specific combination of new technology and traditional practices, and paying more attention to details in crop management, the world’s farmers can meet their crop production challenges and at the same time more efficiently use and protect their resources into the future.

Despite overall increased production in the last century, it is critical that grazing production systems focus on improving beef and dairy efficiency to meet current and future global food demands. For livestock producers, production efficiency is essential to maintain long-term profitability and sustainability. This continued viability of production systems using pasture- and range-based grazing systems requires more rapid adoption of innovative management practices and selection tools that increase profitability by optimizing grazing management and increasing reproductive performance. Understanding the genetic variation in cow herds will provide the ability to select cows that require less energy for maintenance, which can potentially reduce total energy utilization or energy required for production, consequently improving production efficiency and profitability. In the United States, pasture- and range-based grazing systems vary tremendously across various unique environments that differ in climate, topography, and forage production. This variation in environmental conditions contributes to the challenges of developing or targeting specific genetic components and grazing systems that lead to increased production efficiency. However, across these various environments and grazing management systems, grazable forage remains the least expensive nutrient source to maintain productivity of the cow herd. Beef and dairy cattle can capitalize on their ability to utilize these feed resources that are not usable for other production industries. Therefore, lower-cost alternatives to feeding harvested and stored feedstuffs have the opportunity to provide to livestock producers a sustainable and efficient forage production system. However, increasing production efficiency within a given production environment would vary according to genetic potential (i.e., growth and milk potential), how that genetic potential fits the respective production environment, and how the grazing management fits within those genetic parameters. Therefore, matching cow type or genetic potential to the production environment is and will be more important as cost of production increases.

This review paper describes the livestock production systems in China, their status and trends, driving factors, and major issues with profound impact. Three distinct livestock production systems are discussed; grazing, mixed farming, and industrial systems. The ‘grazing system’ is generally characterised by harsh climate, rangeland, and low livestock output. Market forces, biophysical constraints and environmental concerns are putting a ceiling on the potential for intensification of the grazing system except in some areas where the agro-ecological potential permits. This system needs to be re-oriented towards adding ecosystem service provision, rather than mere production or subsistence. The ‘mixed farming system’, with the highest share of most kinds of livestock commodities, forms the backbone of China’s agriculture and is undertaking a notable intensification and specialisation process. The ‘industrial system’ is geographically concentrated in areas close to densely populated demand centers. Although growing fast, the share of national livestock output remains relatively small. The past two decades have seen a rapid growth in both consumption and production of livestock food products in China. This new food revolution has been driven to a great extent by the rapid growing economy, personal income and urbanisation. Among the most important issues related to livestock production systems in China are severe rangeland degradation, caused mainly by overexploitation of these lands, increasing demand and competition for feed grain, and environmental and public health risks associated with industrialised livestock production. China will have to cope with such challenges through proper policy and technological interventions to sustain the livestock development and simultaneously secure the natural resources and environmental health.

An efficient nutrient management approach, either product- or process-based, is instrumental for sustainable crop production. Nutrient management approaches emphasize reducing nutrient surplus into the agro-ecosystem, maintaining nutrient balance, and improving nutrient use efficiency. These fertilizers are subjected to poor nutrient use efficiency, leading to significant losses due to immobilization, denitrification, leaching, and run-off. These fertilizers contribute to water and air pollution and demand higher costs of cultivation. To overcome these problems and to increase food grain production, sustainable and environment-friendly approaches must be implemented. In this context, the intervention of nanotechnology for nutrient management in terms of nanofertilizers has immense potential to enhance the quality and quantity of food in a sustainable manner. Nanofertilizers may provide solutions to problems associated with the use of conventional fertilizers, such as environmental pollution, low nutrient use efficiency, and poor quality of produce due to their unchecked use. Efficient applications of nanofertilizers either in soil or foliar could provide a better platform for nutrient management for agricultural crops. Nutrient management approaches based on nanotechnology, such as encapsulation, slow release, and nano-biosensors improve the availability of nutrients in the root zone during the crop growth period. These have been discussed in this chapter.

Life cycle assessment of Swiss farming systems: II. Extensive and intensive production

Successful and sustained crop production to feed burgeoning population in rainfed areas, facing soil fertility-related degradation through low and imbalanced amounts of nutrients, requires regular nutrient inputs through biological, organic or inorganic sources of fertilizers. Intensification of fertilizer (all forms) use has given rise to concerns about efficiency of nutrient use, primarily driven by economic and environmental considerations. Inefficient nutrient use is a key factor pushing up the cost of cultivation and pulling down the profitability in farming while putting at stake the sustainability of rainfed farming systems. Nutrient use efficiency implies more produce per unit of nutrient applied; therefore, any soil-water-crop management practices that promote crop productivity at same level of fertilizer use are expected to enhance nutrient use efficiency. Pervasive nutrient depletion and imbalances in rainfed soils are primarily responsible for decreasing yields and declining response to applied macronutrient fertilizers. Studies have indicated soil test-based balanced fertilization an important driver for enhancing yields and improving nutrient use efficiency in terms of uptake, utilization and use efficiency for grain yield and harvest index indicating improved grain nutritional quality. Recycling of on-farm wastes is a big opportunity to cut use and cost of chemical fertilizers while getting higher yield levels at same macronutrient levels. Best management practices like adoption of high-yielding and nutrient-efficient cultivars, landform management for soil structure and health, checking pathways of nutrient losses or reversing nutrient losses through management at watershed scale and other holistic crop management practices have great scope to result in enhancing nutrient and resource use efficiency through higher yields. The best practices have been found to promote soil organic carbon storage that is critical for optimum soil processes and improve soil health and enhance nutrient use efficiency for sustainable intensification in the rainfed systems.

The Grain & Graze Whole-Farm Model was developed as a simple modelling tool to identify better strategies to improve the income of farmers and overcome grassland degradation. Using information on farm structure, crop and forage production systems, livestock production systems and variable costs involved in all enterprises, maximum whole-farm gross margins are obtained for an optimum or a prescribed mix of enterprises. The incorporation of production systems for different rainfall scenarios enables climatic risks and water use efficiencies of different enterprises to be investigated. Model simulations demonstrated the potential improvements that could be achieved in dollar water use efficiency ($WUE), by changes in management and/or changes in enterprise. The design of the model makes it a valuable tool for evaluating new systems, as it easy to develop new crop, pasture and livestock systems. Innovative farming systems such as pasture cropping and alley farming are included in the model.