33. Agroforestry and windbreaks

Triangle of Environment, Water and Energy: A Sociological Appraisal

Energy resources may be described as different categories of fuels used by the humans for heating, generation of electrical energy and other forms of energy conversion processes. These resources are therefore the sources from which energy is derived, produced and supplied for the use of human beings and overall benefit of society. Energy resources are necessary for the day-to-day sustenance and survival of humans and society at large. Energy resources promote the functionality, viability and vitality of other sectors of a country’s economy. The ability of humans to harness energy resources is arguably the most important step in the history of human civilisation. The sources of global energy supply (energy resources) may be considered in two broad categories, namely non-renewable and renewable resources. Petroleum, a focal point of this study, is an example of fossil fuels. Petroleum resources are energy and major natural resources. These resources development operations are extractive industrial operations, which have tremendous negative effects on the environment and inhibit sustainable development. The adverse consequences of petroleum energy and major natural resources development operations affect the oil-rich ethnic minority Delta region and other oil producing areas of Nigeria, as well as the entire Nigerian nation. In the perspective of this study, ethics may be considered as a wide and exploratory subject of discourse, which appears like an elephant that may be described from many standpoints. Obviously, there are certain ethics, ethical issues or ethical conducts (morally good practices) associated with energy and major natural resources development operations in particular and the entire life-cycle of these resources activities in general, which are designed to promote effective energy resource operations, towards affordable, reliable, sustainable and efficient modern energy services to all societies and individuals around the globe. Law is a system of binding modes of conduct, which are formulated to govern behavioural patterns, namely the behaviour of individuals, groups and entities in society. The aim of this socio-legal study is to examine the role of law as a mechanism of social engineering, positive change and dynamic progress in society, towards providing access to energy services for all (overall public good), by 2030 (the target year proclaimed by the UN) regarding delivery of sustainable modern energy services to all. The study arrives at the finding that law remains a significant and inevitable tool for governing behavioural patterns; nevertheless, in developing countries suffering from energy poverty like Nigeria, law is unfortunately an unresolved necessity in respect of governing energy resources operations for the daily sustenance and survival of humans and society at large. Keywords: Law; Ethics; Energy Resources; Extractive Industrial Operations (EIOs); Petroleum Resources; Non-renewable Resources; Renewable Energy Resources; Sustainable Development (SD); Nigeria; Niger Delta; Bad Political Leadership (Bad Governance); Good Governance; Morality (Morality-in-action: Morally Good Actions); Natural Law (Natural Law School of Thought); Positive Law Theory (Positive Law School of Thought). DOI: 10.7176/IAGS/81-09 Publication date: April 30 th 2020

Multi-input, Multi-output Hybrid Energy Systems

In early January, 1997, at the 76th annual meeting of the Transportation Research Board (TRB) of the National Research Council, a special session was conducted that struck a familiar chord for many of us in attendance. It was not the title so much that attracted our attention--in fact, in a way, the title seemed somewhat ethereal--Energy Supply and Demand: Policy Issues for the Next Millennium. It was, instead, the underlying and recurring themes of nonrenewable energy resources--themes with which so many of us are familiar by virtue of lifelong work and interests-that drew us into that very large hall in the Washington Hilton and compelled us to listen. Here, in a rather inconspicuous setting, at a conference generally more noted for its emphasis on topics like steamship freight tonnage, light rail ridership, and the structural mechanics of concrete pavement, were people talking about fossil fuel energy, the inevitability of our declining resources, and the myriad of impacts that such a decline will have on society--particularly one that relies so heavily on personal transportation. Suffice it to say it was a very good session. Organized and chaired by Mike Lawrence of Jack Faucett Associates, it successfully spanned the spectrum of issues--from estimation of remaining oil and gas resources, on one end, to transportation policy implications, on the other. The presentations focused not only on the United States, but encompassed a global perspective as well. The session was cosponsored by two TRB committees--the Committee on Transportation Energy and the Committee on Alternative Fuels. Because of the situation and environment in which these presentations were made, we felt compelled to include them in the record of this journal as a means of providing our readers access to the thoughts and ideas of individuals not normally represented in Nonrenewable Resources. We think you will find the diversity of ideas to be fascinating, and perhaps even troubling, as you witness participants from various organizations, backgrounds, and disciplines discuss the penetrating and intertwining impacts of United States and world energy resources on such an important economic sector as transportation. The session actually consisted of two parts. In this issue we bring you the four papers from the first half of the session, which was more directly resourceoriented. We also include one paper from the second half of the session, which was aimed more at transportation economics and policy, and which, of course, are inevitably impacted by resource issues. In a Forum article, Mike Lawrence summarizes all five papers from his own vantage point. Also included is a slightly abridged transcript of the audio tape of the questionand-answer session that followed the first half of the session. To round out this special issue of Nonrenewable Resources, we return to our roots a bit and include an article by Schmoker and Crovelli that extends their work on estimating the future growth of oil and gas reserves. We hope you enjoy reading the entire issue, and that you come away with a deeper appreciation of the perspectives of others as they consider the breadth of issues pertaining to our precious nonrenewable energy resources.

The damaging economic, political, and diplomatic effects of Russia’s attack on Ukraine in February 2022 have not been confined to just continental Europe. The highly interconnected and interdependent nature of the global economy means that other regions are similarly, or even more negatively, affected by any outbreak of hostilities in states like Ukraine that prove integral parts of global food and energy supply chains. This is particularly the case with the South Asian region that has a predominance of developing economies already struggling to provide adequate basic services to their citizens, especially in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic and other climate change related natural disasters like floods and wildfire. The aim of this paper is to analyse the ongoing economic and geopolitical effects of Russia’s war against Ukraine in South Asia, highlighting how sustained disruptions in global food and energy supply chains exacerbate existing insecurity in developing economies. The corollary to this economic insecurity is increased inter-regional tensions as individual states compete against each other for increasingly scarce and costlier food and energy resources.

The waste management solutions in landfills of Latvia differ. Some of them are developed according to the concept of biogas production and use in power plants or cogeneration plants (CHP). The use of biogas in CHP depends on energy consumption and supply, and availability of energy consumers. More often are cases when there are no possibilities to connect heat energy consumers, which create problems of the low energy efficiency of power plants’ operation. A structure of energy user in Latvia is characterized by high energy consumption in households, public and service sector, compared with relatively low consumption in the rural and industrial sector. This situation obligates special tasks for power sector development, especially choosing energy resources to ensure energy production and supply. In Latvia imported fossil and renewable energy resources are used. A use of specific energy resource depends on an energy supply policy, and total consumption of energy resources depends on the development of every type of energy resources in regions. Now there is an unjustified high proportion of fossil fuel in state energy balance which it is possible to reduce by beginning the active use of local fuel in regions. RDF and landfill gas as a renewable energy source could play a role in the development of local energy resources in Latvia, which should be based on principles of cluster, integration and gradualness. In this paper the main attention is paid to waste management problems from the development of a regional power supply system point of view together with understanding, that those are not two separate systems, but two parts of one system with dynamic rather than static development.

The waste management solutions in landfills of Latvia differ. Some of them are developed according to the concept of biogas production and use in power plants or cogeneration plants (CHP). The use of biogas in CHP depends on energy consumption and supply, and availability of energy consumers. More often are cases when there are no possibilities to connect heat energy consumers, which create problems of the low energy efficiency of power plants’ operation. A structure of energy user in Latvia is characterized by high energy consumption in households, public and service sector, compared with relatively low consumption in the rural and industrial sector. This situation obligates special tasks for power sector development, especially choosing energy resources to ensure energy production and supply. In Latvia imported fossil and renewable energy resources are used. A use of specific energy resource depends on an energy supply policy, and total consumption of energy resources depends on the development of every type of energy resources in regions. Now there is an unjustified high proportion of fossil fuel in state energy balance which it is possible to reduce by beginning the active use of local fuel in regions. RDF and landfill gas as a renewable energy source could play a role in the development of local energy resources in Latvia, which should be based on principles of cluster, integration and gradualness. In this paper the main attention is paid to waste management problems from the development of a regional power supply system point of view together with understanding, that those are not two separate systems, but two parts of one system with dynamic rather than static development.

Introduction: information about changes in food and energy supply, macronutrient and micronutrient availability by processing level is required to understand the nutritional transition in Mexican society. Objective: to describe the food, energy, and nutrient supply in Mexican households from 1984 to 2018. Methods: five waves of a Mexican cross-sectional survey were analyzed to identify changes in food, energy, and nutrient supplies in households. Food groups were created using the NOVA classification. The content of energy and nutrients was estimated using Mexican and U.S. databases. The education and income interaction with energy and nutritional supply was analyzed. Results: in this period, the supply of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables, processed meat and dairy, fish and seafood, prepared food, and ultra-processed food and drinks increased, whereas unprocessed or minimally processed (UMP) cereals and tubers, legumes, meat, dairy, eggs, and all processed culinary ingredients decreased. These changes have implied a higher supply of protein, total fat, cholesterol, vitamins A and C, calcium and sodium. Total energy, energy density, carbohydrates, and magnesium and potassium density decreased. Across waves, UMP and processed cereals were the main supply for energy, carbohydrates, fiber, iron and potassium. Dairy was the main supply of saturated fat. UMP and processed cereals were the main source of sodium in 1984, whereas ultra-processed cereals were the main source of sodium in 2018. Conclusions: although UMP foods remain the main group in most Mexican households, their supply has decreased over the years, whereas the supply of ultra-processed foods has increased.

Owing to uneven development and unbalanced resource endowments within China, ensuring reliable energy, water and food supply is the core challenge to regional sustainable development. This study uses the latest multi-regional input-output model to quantify energy, water and food resource requirements of Mainland China’s 31 provincial regions in 2012. Results show that the resource occupancy levels of the eastern developed area were much higher than the northeast, central and western areas, which contributed 45.1%, 42.1% and 39.6% of total domestic energy, water and agri-food resource requirements, respectively. The total interprovincial trade transfers of embodied energy, water and agri-food resources were equivalent to 73.4%, 33.9% and 37.4% of the total domestic direct inputs, respectively. Substantial transfers of embodied energy, water and agri-food resources were identified from the central and western regions to the eastern regions. Investment was the leading final demand category for energy resources while consumption was the largest final demand category for water and agri-food. Consumption-based accounting of energy, water and agri-food requirements provides important implications for understanding the imbalance of regional development faced by the Chinese society to achieving sustainable development.

Valuing the synergy in the water-energy-food nexus for cropping systems: a case in the North China Plain

Cutting edge technologies to end food waste

Energy is one of the major factors that is shaping and influencing the life of every nation on Earth. It is through energy that a nation can gain and achieve any considerable degree of development and progress. It is well known that energy supplies, or to be more specific fuel supplies, are limited and for the most part exhaustible. The energy resources are of two main kinds. These are external energy sources of which solar energy is one of Us constituents and internal energy sources of which fossil fuel is also one of its constituents. Historically global energy requirement has been exponentially increasing. Thus it is vitally important to have a clear and current picture and assessment of the global energy situation. This article begins with an accurate assessment of the current world energy demand and resources, with emphasis on the influence of the energy resources of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. We will also investigate and analyze in some detail energy-related technologies such as hydrogen ...

An adequate energy supply system is a key issue in economic development and human welfare. The industrial development of the Northern part of the globe owes much to the abundant supply of cheap fossil fuels. It is the Southern countries aspirations for industrialization that will call for a significantly larger energy supply. Sustaining economic growth in the industrialized regions will add considerably to the world’s future energy consumption. Two scenarios labelled High and Low are described that indicate a plausible range of the long-term evolution of future economic and energy related activities in seven world regions. On this basis, the energy demand is calculated for each region. An aggregate view of the world’s energy resources is followed by a detailed presentation of energy supply strategies. Of particular interest are the implications of a High energy demand and supply scenario on the stock of world energy resources.

1. Omnivorous predators can protect plants from herbivores, but may also consume plant material themselves. Omnivores and their purely herbivorous prey have previously been thought to respond similarly to host-plant quality. However, different responses of omnivores and herbivores to their shared host plants may influence the fitness, trophic identity, and population dynamics of the omnivores. 2. The aim of the present study was to show that an omnivorous heteropteran (Anthocoris nemorum L.) and two strictly herbivorous prey species respond differently to different genotypes of their shared host plant, Salix. Some plant genotypes were sub-optimal for the omnivore, although suitable for the herbivores, and vice versa. 3. The contrasting patterns of plant suitability for the omnivore and the herbivores highlight an interaction between plant genotype and omnivores' access to animal food. Plant genotypes that were sub-optimal for the omnivore when herbivores were experimentally excluded became the best host plants when herbivores were present, as in the latter situation additional prey became available. By contrast, the quality of plant genotypes that were intrinsically suitable for omnivores, did not improve when herbivores were present as these plant genotypes were intrinsically sub-optimal for herbivores, thus providing omnivores with almost no additional animal food. 4. The differential responses of omnivores and their prey to the same host-plant genotypes should allow omnivores to colonise sub-optimal host plants in their capacity as predators, and to colonise more suitable host plants in their capacity as herbivores. It may thus be difficult for Salix to escape herbivory entirely, as it will rarely be unsuitable for both omnivores and pure herbivores at the same time.

Analysis of energy security indicators and CO2 emissions. A case from a developing economy