24. Article 2 of the First Protocol: right to education

A Human Rights-Based Approach to Poverty Reduction: The Role of the Right of Access to Medicine as an Element of the Right of Access to Health Care

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. It discusses European Convention law and relates it to domestic law under the HRA. Questions, discussion points, and thinking points help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress and knowledge can be tested by self-test questions and exam questions at the chapter end. This chapter deals with Article 3 of the First Protocol which imposes on states a duty to hold elections. At the heart of Article 3 is the view that the best way to uphold human rights is through upholding an ‘effective political democracy’. Human rights require states to respect various rights and freedoms that are necessary for any system if it is to be democratic. Though Article 3 of the First Protocol appears to provide only a collective right to fair elections, it has been interpreted to also provide for individual rights to vote, to stand, and to sit, if elected. Article 3 does not, however, provide wide rights to participate in political processes. Its scope is confined to elections for ‘the legislature’, which do not include local elections or referendums. The controversy over prisoners’ voting rights is discussed in this chapter.

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. It discusses European Convention law and relates it to domestic law under the HRA. Questions, discussion points, and thinking points help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress and knowledge can be tested by self-test questions and exam questions at the chapter end. This chapter considers Article 11 and relates it, in outline, to aspects of public order law in the UK. Article 11 protects the rights of people to ‘peaceful assembly’—to hold and take part in peaceful meetings, marches, and demonstrations. Related issues such as the notion of peaceful assembly and positive duties in respect of facilitating political action are discussed. Article 11 also guarantees the right to ‘associate’: to join and be active in ‘associations’ such as political parties, pressure groups, religious organisations, and trade unions. Both these rights are subject to restriction under the terms of Article 11. The importance of Article 11 rights for democracy is fully recognised, and any restrictions must be consistent with the principles of tolerance and pluralism. Article 11 also permits significant restrictions on the political freedom of police, civil servants, and other public officials.

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. It discusses European Convention law and relates it to domestic law under the HRA. Questions, discussion points, and thinking points help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress and knowledge can be tested by self-test questions and exam questions at the chapter end. This chapter introduces the general idea of qualified rights under the Convention. These are the subjects of the next four chapters. Articles 8–11, involve individual freedom: freedom to live a private and family life (Article 8); freedom to hold and demonstrate religious and other beliefs (Article 9); freedom of expression, including the freedom of the media (Article 10); and the freedom to ‘assemble’ and ‘associate’ (Article 11). The articles have a similar, two-paragraph structure that requires the courts to decide, first, whether some action for which the state is responsible interferes with a protected freedom and, if it does, whether the state has shown that the interference is justified in terms of the second paragraph of the Article involved.

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. It discusses European Convention law and relates it to domestic law under the HRA. Questions, discussion points, and thinking points help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress and knowledge can be tested by self-test questions and exam questions at the chapter end. This chapter discusses Article 1 of the First Protocol. The right to property is controversial. On the one hand, this right can be seen as essential to human flourishing; on the other, property can be seen as representing social and political power, which is distributed unequally. Given the relationship between property and power, it is not surprising that governments have often sought the constitutional freedom to control the production and distribution of wealth in society, which may at times require limiting the right to property. Article 1 of the First Protocol uses terms that seem to accept wide powers of states to control property in the ‘public’ or ‘general’ interest. As discussed in the chapter, the European Court of Human Rights has narrowed this power considerably in the way the Article has been interpreted.

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. It discusses European Convention law and relates it to domestic law under the HRA. Questions, discussion points, and thinking points help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress and knowledge can be tested by self-test questions and exam questions at the chapter end. This chapter focuses on the authority of the police in the United Kingdom and on issues which are affected by human rights law under the HRA. Police powers are exercised with the authority of both common law and statute—the latter (e.g. the Police and Public Evidence Act 1984) must be interpreted for compatibility with Convention rights so far as section 3 HRA allows. The police are considered a ‘core’ public authority, and policing is self-evidently a public function. The following sections also discuss the extensive powers of the police in relation to, in particular, Article 5, regarding arrest and detention, and Article 8, regarding searches and seizure. English and Welsh courts adjudicating on these powers have generally found them to be compatible with Convention rights at the general level. Some important cases, such as over the retention, storage and use of personal data, have led to disagreements with Strasbourg and consequential changes to the law.

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. It discusses European Convention law and relates it to domestic law under the HRA. Questions, discussion points, and thinking points help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress and knowledge can be tested by self-test questions and exam questions at the chapter end. This chapter deals with Article 12, the right to marry and found a family. The right can be qualified by reference to ‘national laws’. This qualification permits states to regulate and restrict marriage so long as the ‘essence’ of the right is not compromised. The human right to marriage gives public recognition and legal protection to the primary unit through which children are conceived and brought up. The European Court of Human Rights tends to allow a wide margin of appreciation in respect of issues over which a clear European consensus has yet to emerge. A number of issues are also discussed in Chapter 15, on Article 8.

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. It discusses European Convention law and relates it to domestic law under the HRA. Questions, discussion points, and thinking points help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress and knowledge can be tested by self-test questions and exam questions at the chapter end. This chapter discusses Article 9, which establishes a general right to freedom of ‘thought, conscience, and religion’. The right to ‘manifest’ belief is ‘qualified’ in the sense that justified interferences are allowed. The duty of a court addressing an Article 9 issue is to decide whether there has been an interference, for which the state is responsible, that either restricts a person in holding religious beliefs or restricts the manifestation of belief. Manifestations of belief can be restricted if the restriction can be justified under the terms of Article 9(2). Important issues involving conscientious objection and the wearing of religious dress both in the context of employment and generally are considered in relation to justification. Article 9 can often be invoked in tandem with other Convention rights that also help to secure freedom of religion and belief.

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. It discusses European Convention law and relates it to domestic law under the HRA. Questions, discussion points, and thinking points help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress and knowledge can be tested by self-test questions and exam questions at the chapter end. This chapter focuses on Article 10, one of the fundamental rights acknowledged in a liberal, democratic society—freedom of expression. Article 10 is a qualified right which reflects the idea that there can be important and legitimate reasons as to why freedom of expression may need to be restricted in order to protect other important rights and freedoms. While the first paragraph of Article 10 establishes a general right to freedom of expression, its second paragraph identifies the only bases upon which the right can be restricted. Restriction of the freedom of expression is subject to scrutiny by the courts, and its necessity must be established by the state. In particular the chapter discusses human rights in the context of political speech and the impact of restraints on hate speech.

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. It discusses European Convention law and relates it to domestic law under the HRA. Questions, discussion points, and thinking points help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress and knowledge can be tested by self-test questions and exam questions at the chapter end. This chapter considers the application of Convention rights in the field of prisoners’ rights; the impact of Convention rights on prisoners in the UK is considered. Prisoners remain within the protection of the European Convention on Human Rights, though the application of these rights will take their position into account. Prisoners’ rights include not only rights to the non-arbitrary loss of liberty (Article 5) and rights to fair procedures (Articles 5 and 6), but also not to be disproportionately denied the rights and freedoms in Articles 8–11. Imprisonment deprives individuals of their liberty and, therefore, is a public function for which the state is responsible under the Convention. The controversy over prisoners’ right to vote is discussed in Chapter 25.

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. It discusses European Convention law and relates it to domestic law under the HRA. Questions, discussion points, and thinking points help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress and knowledge can be tested by self-test questions and exam questions at the chapter end. Article 6 is the right to a fair trial. It looks at the scope of Article 6—the kinds of trial it deals with; and defines ‘determines’, ‘civil rights and obligations’, and ‘criminal charge’ for this purpose. It then goes on to consider the specific rights that are inherent in the idea of a hearing that is ‘fair’ and tribunal that is ‘independent’ and ‘impartial’. It also discusses the additional rights that are enjoyed by a defendant in a criminal trial. Of particular importance is the issue of adjusting the concept of ‘fairness’ to the circumstances, particularly in the context of threats to national security. The need to protect the essence of a right to a fair hearing where there are important public interests justifying restrictions is an issue that is at the heart of the Article 6 case law.

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. It discusses European Convention law and relates it to domestic law under the HRA. Questions, discussion points, and thinking points help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress and knowledge can be tested by self-test questions and exam questions at the chapter end. This chapter the absolute ban on torture and inhuman or degrading treatment that Article 3 requires. The basic terms (torture and inhuman and degrading treatment and punishment) are defined. The absolute nature of the ban is discussed. The chapter also discusses the broad nature of state responsibility to prevent suffering that is severe enough to violate Article 3. Article 3 creates limits to what is acceptable as punishment and, more importantly, applies in a wide range of situations for which the state has responsibility in respect to otherwise lawful activity not involving an intention to harm.

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. It discusses European Convention law and relates it to domestic law under the HRA. Questions, discussion points, and thinking points help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress and knowledge can be tested by self-test questions and exam questions at the chapter end. This chapter discusses Article 5 the right to liberty. This is liberty in its classic sense, addressing the physical liberty of a person (as opposed to broader concepts of liberty, such as the sense of personal autonomy and the lack of individual or social subordination). Article 5 deals with restrictions of liberty like arrest and detention by the police, imprisonment after conviction, detention of the mentally ill in hospitals, and the detention of foreigners in the context of immigration and asylum. It defines and restricts the purposes for which a person can be deprived of his or her liberty and, importantly, requires that people have access to judicial supervision so that the lawfulness of any deprivation of liberty can be examined and, if necessary, remedied. The overriding guarantee of Article 5 is the right not to be detained in an arbitrary manner.

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. It discusses European Convention law and relates it to domestic law under the HRA. Questions, discussion points, and thinking points help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress and knowledge can be tested by self-test questions and exam questions at the chapter end. This chapter discusses slavery and forced labour, and the ban on these imposed by the European Convention on Human Rights. ‘Slavery’ and ‘servitude’ are defined as the ownership or total control of one person by another. A slave has no freedom or autonomy and so is denied the minimum dignity that is essential for any human being. ‘Forced labour’, on the other hand, is defined as being forced to work for another under threat of punishment or death. The application of these terms in the context of current practice and, in particular, to ‘modern slavery’ is discussed.

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. It discusses European Convention law and relates it to domestic law under the HRA. Questions, discussion points, and thinking points help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress and knowledge can be tested by self-test questions and exam questions at the chapter end. This chapter focuses on Article 8. Article 8 is concerned with matters that are considered personal, over which individuals are sovereign, and with which the state should not interfere. In its first paragraph, it recognises ‘private life’, ‘family life’, ‘home’, and ‘correspondence’ as the general concepts in terms of which this sphere of the personal is to be protected under the European Convention on Human Rights. These terms are defined and discussed in the chapter. The second paragraph presents the general legal conditions that must be satisfied before such interference can be considered justified and compatible with the Convention. Much of the chapter is concerned with the application of Article 8 to various situations such as surveillance, the environment, deportation, abortion, and euthanasia. Article 8 is also invoked in respect of important and controversial matters such as the situation of transgendered persons and the duties of states towards homosexual families.