“嶄新菩薩宜今世、科學歐文都了曉”：試論1930、40年代上海佛教居士扶乩團體“來蘇社”

Abstract

Of the various religious activities that flourished in China at the beginning of the 20(superscript th) century, the popularity of spirit-writing (fuji or fuluan) movements whose origins can be traced to the 1840s appears to have reached its peak, in part due to the assistance of associated groups. Due to the fact that Shanghai was situated at the center of many important transportation routes, many members of religious groups gathered there to set up branch organizations, which included the founding of phoenix halls (luantang) where spirit-writing rites were performed. Historical records indicate that the number of these branches in Shanghai reached more than one hundred, including the Chinese Society for the Relief of Sentient Beings (Zhongguo jishenghui), the Pavilion of Gathered Clouds (Jiyun xuan), and the Morality Association (Daode hui). Scholars who have investigated the history, social activities, and organization of these phoenix halls have provided excellent research results, while shedding light on the importance of deities like Jigong and Lu Dongbin. However, one issue that merits further exploration is the links between spiritwriting movements and Buddhism. On the one hand, sprit-writing was criticized by both the old and new branches of Chinese Buddhism at the beginning of the 20(superscript th) century. However, the links between these two religious traditions may be seen in the history of one particular spiritwriting group: the Lai Su She (literally ”Society of Coming to Jiangsu [Province]”), which was set up in Shanghai on August 6, 1929. The Lai SuShe worshipped as one of its leading deities someone referred to as Mu Daoren, who was said to have been an eminent monk during the Qing dynasty (1644-1911), and whose prognostications, medical treatments, and poetry (all provided during spirit-writing rituals) were held in high prestige. As a result, many elite scholars and monks, such as Jiang Yiyuan (1876-1942), Ding Fubao (1874-1952), Gao Chuiwan (1877-1958), Tang Wenzhi (1865-1954), and Hu Pu'an (1878-1947) all participated in the Lai Su She's spirit-writing activities, while Mu Daoren spoke highly of eminent monks like Yinguang (1861-1940) and Hongyi (1880-1942). The fruits of these activities were then published as Mu Duo Sheng, and circulated for public consumption. In addition to the history of the Lai Su She and the deeds of Mu Daoren, the contents of Mu Duo Sheng reveal how these scholars and monks gradually believed in the existence of Mu Daoren as they turned away from the influence of modern science. The Lai Su She deserves our attention because it included Buddhist members, who at the beginning of the 20(superscript th) century tended to revere Buddhism to the exclusion of other religious beliefs. One key question to be explored in this paper is why these Buddhists participated so fervently in the spirit-writing activities of Lai Su She.