“不衛生”的華人形象：中外間的不同講述－以上海公共衛生為中心的觀察(1860-1911)

Abstract

The ”unsanitary Chinese” was a topic widely discussed by both Chinese and foreigners in modem times, and was subject to constant debate. This paper revolves around three aspects of the topic. First, the ”unsanitary Chinese” seen as the origin of the plague and the introduction of modern bacteriology. Second, the amelioration of unsanitary sights in the foreign Settlement and the reform of Chinese society. And third, the feelings of cultural superiority, nationalistic claims, and struggles for sovereignty that appeared during these debates. From the opening of the treaty ports in 1842, foreigners were deeply worried about the high rate of disease and mortality among foreigners in China. Through the scientific observations of professional doctors, the application of demographic research, and the introduction of the modern bacteriology, the foreigners believed it was the ”unsanitary Chinese” who caused epidemics, and Chinese elites subsequently accepted this view. With the development of urban public sanitation reform in the International Settlement, a sharp contrast emerged with the ”unsanitary” Chinese communities, which stimulated Chinese elites to contemplate the backwardness of their own society, advocate the emulation of foreign sanitary institutions, and promote the political reform and enlightenment of Chinese communities. In the context of an expanding system of colonialism and imperialism, foreign narratives of ”unsanitary Chinese” and related notions cultural superiority also provoked a sense of nationalism among Chinese elites. In addition, the foreign municipality sought to assert authority over sanitation in the Chinese-run parts of Shanghai in the name of good hygiene, which further prompted Chinese leaders to emphasize the development of hygiene to maintain Chinese sovereignty. In this sense, narratives related to ”unsanitary Chinese” were complex and diverse. Although it was a product of cultural discrimination and national oppression, the foreigners’ narrative promoted the introduction of Western and modem concepts of public hygiene into China and helped to improve local sanitary conditions. However, the Chinese elites' acceptance of the narrative of the ”unsanitary Chinese” was not a simple internalization and regurgitation of the hegemonic colonial discourse but rather involved a re-cognition, re-meditation, and re-criticism of their own society as well as of colonialism. The Chinese narrative thus inevitably included the introduction, acceptance, and imagination of a new culture. Although differences between Chinese and foreigners often resulted in competition and conflict, the historical intertwining of foreign and Chinese narratives also initiated and promoted the modern development of Chinese hygiene.