This study investigated the effects of Thymus vulgaris (TV) enrichment on the phytochemical profile, antioxidant capacity, antimicrobial activity, amino acid composition, and α-glucosidase inhibitory potential of fermented dairy-based tarhana. Tarhana was produced in three formulations (control, 40 g kg-1 (TV4), and 80 g kg-1 (TV8) thyme enrichment) under controlled fermentation and drying conditions. The results showed that TV integration significantly increased total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) in a dose-dependent manner, leading to superior DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities. Microbiological analysis revealed a selective antimicrobial effect; TV effectively suppressed yeast and mould growth while maintaining the viability of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), ensuring fermentation integrity. Specifically, TV enrichment increased nutrient density, raising total free amino acids from 1821.7 μg g-1 to 2803.6 μg g-1. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis identified a robust bioactive profile, including rosmarinic acid, luteolin, and naringenin. The TV8 group exhibited a strong antidiabetic profile, providing approximately 90% inhibition of α-glucosidase. Molecular docking confirmed that TV-derived ligands exhibited high binding affinities in the catalytic pockets of metabolic enzymes, mimicking or exceeding the stability of standard inhibitors. The results demonstrate that thyme enrichment enhances the functional and bioactive properties of fermented dairy-based tarhana, offering a scientifically supported strategy for developing value-added functional dairy products with potential metabolic health benefits. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

This study examines the antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of essential oils from Thymus vulgaris, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Lavandula angustifolia. Chemical analysis identified carvacrol, linalool, and camphor as key constituents contributing to activity against E. coli, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa. T. vulgaris oil, rich in phenolic and flavonoid content, showed the strongest efficacy. R. officinalis and L. angustifolia oils also demonstrated notable antimicrobial effects, reducing bacterial viability, biofilm biomass, and metabolic activity, although effectiveness varied with species and biofilm structure. T. vulgaris oil effectively removed E. coli and P. aeruginosa biofilms at 2 × MIC (log reduction 7) but was less effective against S. aureus (log reduction 1.7) at 2 × MIC. The activity of these oils may be associated with disruption of bacterial membranes, biofilm architecture, and induction of oxidative stress. Mammalian toxicity at 3 × MIC shows a low toxic profile for T. vulgaris and R. officinalis, but a high toxic profile for L. angustifolia. These findings highlight T. vulgaris and R. officinalis essential oils as promising antibacterial agents in terms of both efficacy and safety.

This study investigates the morphological effects of various essential oils (EOs) on the monogenean Sparicotyle chrysophrii, a major gill parasite of gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and histological analyses. Adult parasites obtained from experimental infections were exposed in vitro to different EOs at concentrations ranging from 62.5 to 500 ppm. Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Origanum vulgare, Thymus vulgaris, and a commercial blend (Mix Gill) exhibited the highest antiparasitic efficacy, achieving complete mortality at 500 ppm within one hour. SEM observations revealed extensive tegumental disruption, including surface erosion, deep wrinkling, and clamp detachment, which increased in severity with EO concentration and exposure time. Histological analyses confirmed widespread tissue degeneration, characterized by vacuolization, cytoplasmic rarefaction, and loss of the neodermal and muscular organization. Even at sublethal concentrations, lesions consistent with swelling, vesicle formation, and tegumental disorganization indicated progressive degeneration. These structural alterations suggest that EOs compromise the parasite's external integrity, leading to functional collapse of the tegument and haptor. The results support a time- and concentration-dependent mechanism, likely involving disruption of membrane integrity and osmotic imbalance. Collectively, to the best of our knowledge, this is among the first studies to provide detailed ultrastructural evidence of EO-induced damage in S. chrysophrii and highlights their potential as eco-friendly antiparasitic agents for aquaculture. Further studies integrating ultrastructural and biochemical analyses are warranted to elucidate the molecular pathways underlying these effects.

Background: Gingivitis is a reversible periodontal disease caused by plaque. It can be prevented and managed through mechanical and chemical plaque control methods. While chlorhexidine (CHX) is the gold standard mouthwash, its side effects have led to interest in herbal alternatives. Herbal mouthwashes containing plants such as Thymus vulgaris, Hedera helix, and Althaea officinalis show promise for treating gingivitis.Purpose: This study evaluates a novel herbal mouthwash, derived from Pedicough syrup, as an adjunct to scaling and root planning (SRP) for chronic gingivitis treatment.Materials and Method: This double-blind randomized clinical trial included 45 systemically healthy individuals diagnosed with generalized chronic gingivitis. All the participants received phase 1 of periodontal treatment (oral hygiene instruction and SRP).They were then randomly assigned to three groups regarding the mouthwash they used as Group 1 (CHX mouthwash), Group 2 (Pedicough mouthwash), and Group 3 (placebo). Participants used 15ml of their assigned mouthwash twice daily for twoweeks. At baseline and two weeks after using the mouthwashes, a single blinded operator assessed clinical periodontal parameters including gingival index, bleeding index, and plaque indices, which were evaluated across the entire mouth.Data analysis was conducted using SPSS software with statistical significance set at p Value < 0.05.Results: All groups demonstrated improvements in indices from baseline to the end of the study. The two test groups showed greater reductions in plaque, bleeding, and gingival indices compared to the placebo group, and these differences werestatistically significant. However, no significant differences were observed between the test groups in terms of periodontal parameters.Conclusion: The new herbal mouthwash demonstrated beneficial effects on clinical periodontal parameters, including plaque, gingival, and bleeding indices, comparable to those of CHX when used as an adjunct to SRP in patients with gingivitis.

Phytophthora species are among the most destructive plant pathogens worldwide, causing severe losses in agricultural, forest, and natural ecosystems. In recent years, the management of Phytophthora diseases has increasingly shifted toward eco-sustainable strategies, with growing interest in plant-derived extracts, particularly essential oils, as low-risk alternatives to synthetic fungicides. In this study, a structured review was combined with new in vitro assays to assess the antifungal activity of essential oils from Thymus vulgaris (TV-EO) and T. serpyllum (TS-EO) against P. cinnamomi, P. drechsleri, P. cactorum, P. citrophthora, P. nicotianae, P. palmivora, and P. infestans. Literature searches were conducted in April 2025 using the Web of Science and Scopus databases, following PRISMA guidelines, with the search term "Thymus" or "Thyme" and "Phytophthora". Twenty studies included in the review demonstrated that the activity of Thymus essential oils against Phytophthora species was highly variable and shaped by chemotype, Thymus species, pathogen, and experimental setup. Additional in vitro assays further confirmed a clear dose-dependent inhibitory effect for both TV-EO and TS-EO. TS-EO consistently exhibited stronger activity than TV-EO, likely reflecting its carvacrol-rich chemotype, while thymol-based TV-EO showed lower but still significant inhibition depending on the pathogen species. Overall, these results highlight the potential of Thymus essential oils as eco-friendly tools for the management of Phytophthora diseases. However, the strong dependence on chemotype, pathogen species, and assay conditions underscores the need for standardized testing, detailed chemical characterization, and in vivo validation.

Herb-Drug Interactions (HDIs) are a major clinical concern, as they may alter drug efficacy or cause toxicity. This study evaluated the potential HDIs of Echinacea purpurea, Thymus vulgaris, and Salvia officinalis by assessing their effects on Drug-Metabolizing Enzyme (DME) gene expression in rats. Rats (n = 10/group) received Echinacea purpurea (50 mg/kg), Salvia officinalis (400 mg/kg), Thymus vulgaris (500 mg/kg), or vehicle for 15 days. Hepatic transcripts of Cyp3a1, Cyp2d1, Ephx1, Ugt1a1, Ces1, and Nqo1 were quantified by qPCR. Serum and hepatic biomarkers, oxidative stress indices, and histology of liver and kidney were also assessed. All extracts increased the mRNA levels of drug-metabolizing enzymes (2-8-fold) as measured by qPCR; protein expression and enzymatic activities were not assessed. Thymus vulgaris increased serum proteins and hepatic NO and GSH, while ALT rose in the Salvia officinalis and Thymus vulgaris groups. MDA was elevated in all groups. Histology showed mild hepatocellular vacuolation with Echinacea purpurea and minor hemorrhage with Thymus vulgaris. All extracts slightly increased serum creatinine with minimal renal lesions. These findings suggest that the three herbs may modulate DME expression at the transcript level and promote mild oxidative histopathological changes after subchronic exposure. Since only mRNA was measured, functional consequences for protein abundance and enzyme activity remain to be confirmed. Echinacea, Salvia, and Thymus may contribute to HDIs by altering DME gene expression and inducing early hepatic and renal stress in rats. Further studies at the protein, enzymatic, and pharmacokinetic levels are required to determine whether these findings have clinical relevance.

Activity of essential oils against Caenorhabditis elegans: Showing anthelmintic potential for new products.

Phytochemicals as inhibitors of pathogenesis to combat ostertagiosis, toxocariasis, trichostrongylosis and trichuriasis in cattle: A systematic review.

Phytosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Thymus vulgaris leaf extract: characterization and dual biological efficacy

Thymol, a monoterpene phenol derived from Thymus vulgaris, suppresses a wide range of microorganisms and possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects. This article focuses on the biomedical and dietary applications of thymol and briefly covers its physiological mechanisms and administration routes. Aqueous solubility limitations, high volatility, and oxidative instability hinder the practical applications of thymol. Nanoemulsions, liposomes, micelles, and polymeric nanoparticles have been widely used to stabilize, solubilize, and make thymol more accessible to the body. Drug delivery to the target location can be controlled to some extent and may improve targeting efficiency, maximizing therapeutic effectiveness and minimizing unwanted effects. Thymol is a safe, effective, and environmentally sustainable food preservative, a film-forming agent, and a key ingredient in new packaging solutions. This is because its antimicrobial activity prevents the growth of pathogenic bacteria, extends shelf life, and preserves the sensory quality of meat, dairy, fruits, and vegetables. Despite strong trends, progress, and research, large-scale clinical studies are still lacking, and the regulatory paths are unclear. To meet this challenge, clinical validation should lead to scientific, pharmacological, transdisciplinary, and sustainable production techniques. Thymol is a versatile and sustainable natural substance that can be used to improve food safety and therapeutics. Overcoming existing difficulties will allow this product to be used commercially and ensure sustainable natural health and food preservation solutions.

Weaning is a critical and stressful phase in the early life of lambs, often causing reduced feed intake, impaired gut integrity, and increased susceptibility to gastrointestinal diseases. Therefore, maintaining intestinal barrier function and digestive capacity is essential for supporting healthy growth and reducing post-weaning challenges. This study examined how the intestinal barrier integrity and digestive enzyme activity of newly weaned lambs were affected by nano-encapsulated black seed (Nigella sativa) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) oils. Four treatment groups (n = 16) were randomly assigned to 64 Awassi lambs (45 days old, 12.5 ± 1.2 kg body weight): Control (C), Nano-encapsulated black seed oil (NBS), Nano-encapsulated thyme oil (NTO), and combination (NBS + NTO). For 56 days after weaning, 200 mg/kg of nano-encapsulated oils were added to the feed. Western blotting and immunofluorescence were used to examine the presence of tight junction proteins [claudin-1, occludin, and zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1] in intestinal tissue samples. Serum and duodenal contents were used to test the activity of pancreatic enzymes (amylase, lipase, and protease). After being weaned, 64 Awassi lambs were divided into four groups (n = 16): control, nano-encapsulated black seed oil, nano-encapsulated thyme oil, and their combination. ZO-1 (3.1-fold), occludin (2.5-fold), and claudin-1 (2.8-fold) were all significantly more expressed in the combination group than in the control group (p < 0.001). There was also a significant increase in lipase (178 ± 19 vs. 98 ± 11 U/l), protease (892 ± 78 vs. 512 ± 56 U/mg protein), and amylase (485 ± 42 vs. 289 ± 31 U/l). The average daily gain increased by 24% (285 ± 28 vs. 230 ± 24 g/day; p < 0.01), and intestinal permeability decreased by 58% (lactulose/mannitol ratio: 0.18 ± 0.02 vs. 0.43 ± 0.05; p < 0.001). The combination treatment increased tight junction proteins (2.5-3.1-fold), enhanced enzyme activities (68%-82%), reduced intestinal permeability by 58%, and improved feed efficiency and growth performance. Nano-encapsulated black seed and thyme oils synergistically enhance intestinal integrity, digestive enzyme activity, and growth performance in weaned lambs.

The use of non-biodegradable plastic food packaging materials has become a major environmental concern. These plastics release chemicals and microplastics during degradation, harming wildlife and entering the food chain, posing risks to both environmental and human health. This study aimed to evaluate electrospun poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) mats incorporating natural antibacterial Thymus vulgaris L. extract (TE) and natural crosslinker citric acid (CA) as alternative food packaging materials. Packaging mats with TE and/or CA combinations in PVP were evaluated for their structural, chemical, optical, and shelf-life-enhancing effects on blueberries. The results show that dissolving PVP in TE extract and adding CA in PVP ethanol-water or TE-based solutions significantly affected the viscosity and conductivity of the electrospinning solutions, thereby influencing the morphology of electrospun mats. FTIR analysis confirmed the incorporation of TE into the polymer and indicated CA induced hydrogen bonding, interactions that may reduce the polymer chain mobility and increase the brittleness of the electrospun mat. In tests with blueberries, it was estimated that the commonly used traditional food film minimized blueberry weight loss, whereas the porous electrospun PVP and PVP/TE mats allowed greater moisture release and preserved better visual quality by reducing wrinkling and dehydration. Overall, electrospun PVP-based mats functionalized with TE show promise as sustainable food packaging materials that balance moisture management with product appearance.

The transition toward a sustainable agri-food system, aligned with agricultural and environmental policy objectives, has increased interest in aromatic plants as non-synthetic pesticide alternatives. This study focused on evaluating the antifungal potential of five specific aromatic plant species, particularly Lavandula dentata, Origanum vulgare, Thymus vulgaris, Salvia officinalis and Rosmarinus officinalis, against the phytopathogenic soil-borne fungi Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. radicis-lycopersici and Verticillium dahliae. During screening, L. dentata and T. vulgaris extracts exhibited strong in vitro fungicidal activity. Bioactive compounds previously detected in both lavender and thyme were identified in their extracts using a triple quadrupole/linear ion trap mass spectrometer. Assessment of in vitro phytoprotective action of L. dentata extract in solid and liquid growth media demonstrated inhibitory effects against F. oxysporum f.sp. radicis-lycopersici at concentrations above 1% v/v, with inhibitory effects of L. dentata extract being observed at concentrations equal to or above 2% v/v. T. vulgaris extract inhibited V. dahliae growth on solid media at concentrations at 1% v/v or above, while inhibitory effects were observed in broth media containing 2% v/v thyme extract. Seed germination tests of both L. dentata and T. vulgaris revealed a concentration-dependent reduction in their germination index (GI) at concentrations equal or above 2% v/v, apart from the effect of lavender extract on cress, where inhibition occurred at dose application above 5% v/v. In planta experiments demonstrated the complete phytoprotective action of lavender extract against F. oxysporum f.sp. radicis-lycopersici, while a marginal improvement in plant survival was observed during application of T. vulgaris extract.

Due to biodegradability, functionalization, and sustained release, polymer-based films are widely used in different industries. This study explores a bioactive emulsion-based film obtained using high-methoxy pectin (HMP), Origanum onites L. essential oil, and a hydroalcoholic extract of Thymus vulgaris L., prepared using various emulsion recipes. The emulsions obtained were applied to cellulose supports intended for topical applications. Bioactive textiles were analyzed using SEM-EDS elemental mapping, ATR FT-IR spectroscopy, biocompatibility assessment, antimicrobial activity assays, and analysis of comfort indices. SEM images of textile supports treated with bioactive emulsions confirmed the creation of a film surface and that the homogeneity of the film increases with increasing amount of glycerin, which acts as a plasticizer. Infrared spectra combined with their second derivatives and PCA indicate the presence of oregano essential oil, thyme extract, and pectin on the surface of the cotton. The biocompatibility evaluation of functionalized cotton supports revealed minimal cytotoxic effects on HaCaT human keratinocytes after 24 h of exposure. The results of the analyses showed that bioactive textile supports also exhibit antimicrobial activity. Therefore, the active emulsions with pectin, oregano essential oil, and hydroalcoholic extract of thyme provide biocompatible and antimicrobial active films by applying on cellulosic supports.

The widespread use of modern insecticide formulations underscores the need for mechanistic evaluation of their potential renal toxicity. This study investigated the nephrotoxic effects of Ampligo® 150 ZC, a binary formulation of lambda-cyhalothrin and chlorantraniliprole, in female rabbits under subacute exposure conditions, with particular emphasis on apoptosis-related and epithelial integrity biomarkers, and evaluated the protective effects of thyme essential oil (TEO) and vitamin C. Rabbits were allocated into four groups: control, AP, AP + TEO, and AP + TEO + vitamin C. Ampligo (AP) exposure resulted in significant renal dysfunction, as evidenced by elevated biochemical biomarkers and marked histopathological lesions. At the molecular level, AP induced p53 upregulation alongside Bcl-2 and Cyclin D1 downregulation, suggesting apoptosis induction and cell cycle dysregulation. Moreover, reduced E-cadherin and β-catenin expressions indicated disruption of epithelial junction integrity and impaired renal structural homeostasis. Notably, co-administration of TEO and vitamin C markedly attenuated these alterations, improving biochemical, histopathological, and immunohistochemical parameters. Overall, these findings suggest that AP-driven nephrotoxicity may involve apoptotic and epithelial pathways under subacute exposure conditions, whereas antioxidant co-treatment may mitigate kidney injury, supporting the potential of natural antioxidants as adjuncts against pesticide-induced renal injury.

Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) denture base resins are susceptible to microbial colonization, particularly by Candida albicans, contributing to denture stomatitis. Natural bioactive compounds such as Thymus vulgaris essential oil have emerged as potential alternatives to conventional disinfectants. This study evaluated the antifungal activity of T. vulgaris essential oil and the effects of denture disinfection solutions containing different concentrations of the oil on the physicomechanical and optical properties of PMMA. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against two C. albicans strains (ATCC 14053 and NCPF 3179) was determined using the broth microdilution method. Toxicity was assessed using a Tenebrio molitor in vivo model. PMMA specimens were immersed for 7, 14, and 28 days in solutions containing MIC and 10× MIC concentrations. Distilled water and 2.5% sodium hypochlorite served as controls. Flexural strength, surface roughness (Ra), and color change (ΔE) were evaluated according to ISO 20795-1 standards. Statistical analyses were performed at a 5% significance level. The essential oil exhibited antifungal activity with an MIC of 4.5 µg/mL against both strains. No statistically significant toxicity was observed in the in vivo model (p > 0.05). At MIC concentration, no significant alterations were detected in flexural strength, surface roughness, or color stability of PMMA over 28 days. However, the 10× MIC concentration resulted in reduced flexural strength, increased surface roughness, and significant color changes over time (p < 0.05). Thymus vulgaris essential oil demonstrates antifungal activity and a favorable safety profile in the experimental model tested. When used at its minimum inhibitory concentration, it preserves the mechanical and optical properties of PMMA, suggesting its potential as an alternative disinfecting agent for removable prostheses.

Synergistic effects of Moringa oleifera and Thymus vulgaris methanolic extracts on growth performance, Gut acid-base balance, Humoral immunity, and nutrient digestibility in broiler chickens.

Phytotherapeutic potential of Lamiaceae essential oils and their monoterpenes against Giardia duodenalis.

This study aims to document traditional knowledge related to medicinal plants used by local communities in the Relizane Province of Northwestern Algeria, with the dual objective of preserving cultural heritage and supporting the sustainable use and pharmacological potential of these resources. Ethnobotanical surveys were conducted in seven regions of Relizane, engaging 210 local informants. A total of 70 medicinal plant species, belonging to 32 families, were identified. The most frequently cited families were Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, and Asteraceae, with Thymus vulgaris, Matricaria chamomilla, and Mentha spicata emerging as the most commonly used species. Data were analyzed using ethnobotanical indices such as Use Value (UV) and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF). Thymus vulgaris had the highest UV (0.080), while the highest ICF values were observed for respiratory (0.80) and digestive disorders (0.72), indicating a high level of agreement among informants. In contrast, reproductive health exhibited the lowest ICF (0.25). Bangladesh J. Bot. 55(1): 77-84, 2026 (March)

Abstract. In this work, ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared using Thymus vulgaris extract and modified through copper doping and copper–lanthanum co-doping. Structural analyses (XRD, Raman, FTIR, SEM) confirmed the wurtzite crystal phase with polyhedral morphology across all samples. Distinct performance trends were observed depending on the doping strategy. Cu–ZnO demonstrated the highest insecticidal efficacy against Myzus persicae , achieving complete mortality within four days, and exhibited superior photocatalytic activity, removing 86.3% of methylene blue within one hour under visible light. In contrast, Cu–La–ZnO displayed enhanced antibacterial performance, producing the largest inhibition zones against Staphylococcus aureus (17 mm), Escherichia coli (15 mm), and Salmonella typhimurium (16 mm). These findings suggest that copper doping predominantly promotes reactive oxygen species generation, favoring insecticidal and photocatalytic functions, while the synergistic incorporation of lanthanum enhances antibacterial interactions.