Self-report Measures Research Articles

Sleep deficiency and symptoms of pain, fatigue, and depressed mood in youth with and without childhood systemic lupus erythematosus.

To describe and compare sleep deficiency and symptoms of pain, fatigue, and depressed mood in youth with childhood Systemic lupus erythematosus (cSLE) to a healthy comparison group of youth; and to test the associations between sleep and symptoms of pain, fatigue, and depressed mood in youth with cSLE. Forty-three youth (23 youth with cSLE; 20 age, sex-matched healthy youth) wore actigraphs and completed sleep diaries for 10 days, and completed self-report questionnaires on sleep quality, pain, fatigue, and depressed mood. On average, both groups had a total sleep time of less than 7 hours. Youth with cSLE had worse sleep efficiency (73.3%) and sleep regularity index scores (55.4) compared to the healthy comparison group of youth (79.2%, 60.1, respectively). Youth with cSLE had worse pain (p = .03) and fatigue (p = .004) compared to the healthy comparison group. Negative associations were found among self-reported sleep quality, sleep satisfaction, and symptoms of pain, fatigue, and depressed mood in youth with cSLE and wake after sleep onset was positively associated with fatigue. Poor sleep efficiency and sleep irregularity accompanied by symptoms of pain, fatigue, and depressed mood was prevalent in youth with cSLE. Youth with lupus should be encouraged to maintain a regular sleep schedule. Since, this is the first study to incorporate objective sleep and sleep regularity measures in youth with cSLE, additional studies with objective and self-report sleep measures are needed to replicate our findings.

Associations between Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Diabetes in Vietnam-Era Women Veterans in the HealthViEWS Study.

Background: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with incident diabetes. However, past studies have often included predominantly male samples, despite important sex and gender differences in diabetes. To address this limitation, this study examined the association between PTSD and diabetes in older Veteran women, a population with a high burden of PTSD. Materials and Methods: Data were collected from 4,105 women (Mage = 67.4 years), participating in the Health of Vietnam-Era Veteran Women's Study (HealthViEWS; Department of Veterans Affairs Cooperative Studies Program #579). Participants completed self-report measures of demographics, health conditions, and health behaviors. Information on military service was obtained through service records. A structured clinical interview was conducted by telephone to assess current and lifetime PTSD and other mental health disorders. Weighted descriptive and logistic regression analyses were used to examine associations between PTSD and diabetes. Results: The prevalence of diabetes was 28.4% among women with current full PTSD compared to 23.4%, 17.6%, and 17.5% for current subthreshold, remitted, and no PTSD. In unadjusted analyses, women with current full and subthreshold PTSD were 1.87 [1.49; 2.33] and 1.44 [1.11; 1.85] times more likely to have diabetes compared to women with no PTSD. Remitted PTSD was not associated with increased odds of diabetes. Effects were attenuated but remained significant after adjustment for relevant covariates. Conclusions: Vietnam-era women with current PTSD, including subthreshold symptoms, had a greater likelihood of diabetes compared to women without PTSD. These findings suggest that women with PTSD may benefit from increased diabetes prevention efforts.

Childhood maltreatment, peer victimization, borderline personality feature, suicidal risk in adolescents: Direct and indirect associations among developmental trajectories.

Childhood maltreatment, peer victimization, and borderline personality traits have all been shown to be linked to suicidal risk. However, there remains a need to illuminate the possible direct and indirect pathways among them from a developmental perspective that could serve as intervention targets. This study thus aimed to investigate the direct and indirect relationships among developmental trajectories of childhood maltreatment, peer victimization, borderline personality feature, and suicidal risk in adolescents. A total of 1648 Chinese adolescents (48.12% boys; Mage = 13.69; SD = 0.82) in junior middle schools completed self-report measures on three-time points across 1 year. Latent growth curve modeling was used to evaluate the direct and indirect relationships among the developmental trajectories of the aforementioned study variables. The developmental trajectories of childhood maltreatment, peer victimization, and borderline personality feature were positively and directly related to the developmental trajectory of suicidal risk; and the developmental trajectories of childhood maltreatment, peer victimization were indirectly related to the developmental trajectory of suicidal risk through the mediating effect of the developmental trajectory of borderline personality feature. The findings elucidated the direct and indirect longitudinal relationships among childhood maltreatment, peer victimization, borderline personality feature, and suicidal risk, highlighting that interventions should target childhood maltreatment, peer victimization, and borderline personality feature to decrease suicidal risk in adolescents with a developmental perspective.

A Psychometric Network Analysis Approach for Detecting Item Wording Effects in Self-report Measures across Subgroups

In this study, we explored psychometric network analysis (PNA) as an alternative method for identifying item wording effects in self-report instruments. We examined the functioning of negatively worded items in the network structures of two math-related scales from the 2019 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS); Students Like Learning in Mathematics (SLLM); and Students Confident in Mathematics (SCM). We also explored how the negatively worded items functioned in network structures across demographic subgroups. Data were drawn from eight countries that represented diverse levels of math performance and cultural attitudes toward school ( n = 75,972). We found that negatively worded items were distinct from the positively worded items in the SLLM and SCM item networks, and that this effect was consistent across all age- and country-level subgroups. Based on these findings, we recommend PNA as a data-driven approach for detecting wording effects effectively.

A collective action approach to improving attitudes and self-efficacy towards gender equality among male STEM academics

AbstractDespite the implementation of equality interventions within higher education, progress towards gender parity in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) remains slow. Male educators often exhibit poorer engagement with diversity initiatives, potentially contributing to persisting gender disparities in STEM given men’s longstanding dominance in these programs. Two experiments investigate how equality interventions should be designed to maximize support from male educators. Experiment 1 (N = 72; Mage = 39.72, SDage = 12.33) used virtual reality to manipulate 2 factors among male academics: (1) exposure to gender inequality and (2) virtually taking the perspective of a female scientist. Using self-report and behavioral measures, viewing an empirical presentation outlining the prevalence of gender issues in STEM yielded the greatest support for equality initiatives following successful perspective-taking. Experiment 2 (N = 120; Mage = 32.48, SDage = 10.36) varied two additional factors among male academics: (1) evidence-based methods to reduce gender biases in STEM (i.e., promoting self-efficacy) and (2) blaming male academics for gender inequalities. Promoting self-efficacy and blaming men for disparities led to greater confidence in male academics’ ability to address gender inequalities in their field. Notably, higher self-efficacy accounted for greater support for equality initiatives and internal motives to engage with diversity programs. Findings provide an empirical framework and high-tech training tools for promoting engagement with diversity initiatives among male educators, informing development of interventions within higher education to improve student and faculty experiences in STEM.

Individual differences in autonomy and sociotropy in relation to autistic traits, camouflaging and interpersonal functioning

The social motivation hypothesis has proposed that autism/autistic traits result developmentally from lower motivation to interact socially. However, counter to this hypothesis, a growing body of research on ‘camouflaging’ suggests many autistic people or those with high autistic traits work hard to appear more ‘neurotypical’ to foster friendships. “Sociotropy/dependency” and “autonomy/self-reliance” characterise different attachment styles. Despite their importance for understanding interpersonal functioning, their relationship with autistic traits and camouflaging is unknown. To investigate this question in 168 participants (71 % females, Mean age = 30; SD = 10), we used online self-reported measures including depressive and social anxiety (i.e. affective) symptoms. A large fraction of variability in interpersonal functioning and camouflaging in the respective models was explained (R-square: 0.40 and 0.50, respectively). Autistic traits and autonomy were both negatively and independently associated with interpersonal functioning (β = −0.23, p = .002 and β = −0.14, p = .045, respectively) after controlling for the influence of sociotropy and affective symptoms. Furthermore, sociotropy was independently associated with camouflaging (β = 0.22, p = .001) after controlling for autonomy and affective symptoms. This may suggest that social motivation is dissociable from autistic traits which could explain why a subgroup of people with autistic traits is highly motivated to camouflage.

Validation of the Cognitive Assessment Instrument for Obsessions and Compulsions (CAIOC-13) in an Indian Sample

Background: Brief self-report measures of cognition are advantageous for flagging significant cognitive dysfunction without extensive neuropsychological assessments. The Cognitive Assessment Instrument for Obsessions and Compulsions (CAIOC-13) is a recently developed self-report that assesses everyday cognitive dysfunction in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), for example, difficulties with reading, slowness, and decision-making. This study was undertaken to validate the CAIOC-13 in an Indian sample of OCD. Material and Methods: 75 subjects with OCD and 81 non-clinical controls completed CAIOC-13, Perceived Deficits Questionnaire (PDQ), and Dysfunctional Attitude Scale-Short Form (DAS-SF1). Convergent and divergent validity with PDQ and DAS-SF1 were established with Pearson’s correlation; the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve was used to analyze discriminant validity; and factorial structure was evaluated using the principal component analysis (PCA). Results: CAIOC-13 scores showed a strong significant correlation ( r = 0.56; p < .001) with PDQ and a moderate correlation with DAS-SF1 scores ( r = 0.33; p = .003). CAIOC-13 could accurately discriminate between OCD and controls (area under curve = 0.92). PCA revealed strong loading on a single component. Conclusion: CAIOC-13 is a valid tool for briefly assessing OCD-related cognitive dysfunction in Indian samples. Future studies may examine the correlation of CAIOC-13 with standardized neuropsychological assessments.

Turkish adaptation of a brief self-report measure of fantasy proneness: The Creative Experiences Questionnaire (CEQ)

AbstractThis research addresses the construct of fantasy proneness that is unexplored in the context of Turkey by adapting and assessing the psychometric properties of the widely accepted Creative Experiences Questionnaire (CEQ), aiming to fill a significant gap in existing literature and contribute to the understanding of this construct and its correlates in a population aged between 18 and 60 years. The Turkish version of the CEQ demonstrated face validity, aligning participant responses with fantasy, imagination, and dissociation (n = 15). Exploratory Factor Analysis confirmed a single-factor solution based on the scree plot graphic, without item removal (n = 310). Reliability and validity analyses (N = 464) affirmed robustness with adequate internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.78, McDonald’s Omega = 0.77) and test-retest reliability (n = 110, r = .72). Convergent validity was supported by correlations with dissociative experiences (r = .51) and magical ideation (r = .51). Discriminant validity was evident in negative correlations with social desirability (r = -.10, p < .05), notably, impression management (r = -.12, p < .05), indicating unbiased capture of fantasy experiences. Predictive validity was supported by a positive correlation observed between fantasy proneness and interest in creative activities (r = .21). Participants engaged in or aspiring to engage in creative activities professionally scored notably higher, broadening implications for creativity research. Similarities between the original and Turkish versions suggested cultural variations do not significantly affect fantasy proneness in adults. Considering limitations, future research should explore age-related variations of fantasy proneness as well as its association with social desirability. Implications extend to clinical research, emphasizing consideration of fantasy proneness and its correlates in psychopathological and broader psychological health studies in Turkey and globally.

Associations between personality traits and different types of mobile phone use while driving: A cross-sectional study

This study investigated the interplay between personality traits and mobile phone use while driving (MPUWD) among 392 drivers in Zahedan. The study revealed that individuals with higher levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness were less likely to MPUWD. For each unit increase in agreeableness or conscientiousness, there was an 8 % decrease in the odds of MPUWD, along with decreases in various phone-related activities. Conversely, individuals with higher levels of neuroticism were more likely to engage in MPUWD, with increased odds for various activities. Open-minded individuals tended to avoid MPUWD, showing decreases in odds for certain activities with each unit increase. Additionally, higher extraversion scores were associated with decreased odds of taking pictures while driving. Notably, the study highlighted the positive association between agreeableness and hands-free MPUWD. Additionally, the study demonstrated that personality traits molded TBP constructs and moral norms. The multiple regression model revealed that agreeableness exhibited significant relationships with behavior intention, while conscientiousness was linked to attitude, perceived behavior control, and subjective norms. Furthermore, moral norms demonstrated significant associations with both agreeableness and conscientiousness. However, the study's reliance on self-reported measures may introduce biases, highlighting the importance of incorporating objective measures and observational data in future research to enhance validity.

Cultivating meaning and self-transcendence to increase positive emotions and decrease anxiety in music performance

This article presents the findings of an intervention aimed at promoting positive emotions in music performance, as positive emotions are intrinsically valuable and can have associated benefits. The intervention sought to help participants conceive performance in more meaningful, self-transcendent terms. This study investigated whether the intervention helped performers to change their approach to performance; whether an increase in meaningfulness and self-transcendence led to more positive performance-related emotions; and whether an increase in positive emotions resulted in higher perceived quality of the performance. Comparison of self-report measures pre- and post-intervention indicated that after the intervention, participants approached performance in a more meaningful, self-transcendent manner. Specifically, they were more focused on the value of music, privilege of performing, and benefits for the audience. They also reported more rewarding performance experiences: they reported more joy, engagement, and self-confidence; more inspiration and connection with their audiences; and less anxiety. In addition, they reported being able to give better performances. None of these changes were found with a randomly assigned wait list control group. We conclude that an intervention designed to change performers’ conceptions of the meaningfulness of performing can have beneficial impacts on the quality of that experience.

Ask how they did it: untangling the relationships between task-specific strategy use, everyday strategy use, and associative memory

ABSTRACT Objective Past research has shown that self-reported everyday strategy use and task-specific strategy use are related to associative memory performance in aging. Understudied is the relationship between these types of strategy use, whether they predict associative memory performance, and how this may differ across genders. Method A sample of older adults (N = 566, 53% female, ages 60–80) completed this online study. Study measures included 1. Multifactorial Memory Questionnaire (MMQ) Strategy Use subscale, a self-report measure of everyday strategy use, 2. Face-Name Task (FNT), a measure of associative memory, and 3. self-initiated number and types of strategies used on the FNT. Analyses examined the interrelationships among all study measures and their relative contributions to FNT performance while accounting for intraindividual factors. Results Participants who reported using more strategies on the FNT performed better than those who used fewer or no strategies; those who reported using at least three strategies and relating FNT to past experience performed best. Women outperformed men on the FNT but did not differ in task-specific strategy use. Participants who reported using no strategies on the FNT had lower MMQ Strategy Use scores. A multiple regression analysis indicated that female gender and using at least two task strategies were significant predictors of greater FNT performance. Conclusions The results indicate that task-specific strategy use relates more to associative memory performance than to everyday strategy use, but neither accounts for the female advantage in FNT performance. Findings encourage querying task-specific strategy use to contextualize age-related associative memory decline.

Academic motivation in adolescents: the role of parental autonomy support, psychological needs satisfaction and self-control

BackgroundVarious perspectives on the existence and degree of motivation, which is a crucial factor influencing human behavior, have been studied for many years. Especially in adolescence, a phase marked by rapid change, motivation plays a crucial role in supporting young people to achieve their goals, fulfill their responsibilities, and experience healthy development.AimsThe present study aims to investigate the structural relationships among perceived parental autonomy support, satisfaction of psychological needs, self-control, and academic motivation.SampleThe study was conducted with a total of 427 high school students, including 230 females and 197 males, aged between 14 and 19 (M = 15.82; SD = 1.02).MethodParticipants completed self-report measures of academic motivation, parental autonomy support, psychological needs satisfaction, and self-control. Structural equation modeling was performed to explore complex relationships between variables of interest.ResultsThe study revealed that psychological needs satisfaction increased as parental autonomy support increased, and self-control also increased with the satisfaction of psychological needs. It was also found that satisfaction of psychological needs was positively related to both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Additionally, self-control was associated with increased intrinsic motivation and decreased amotivation. In addition, it was found that parental autonomy support has an indirect relationship with academic motivation through the satisfaction of psychological needs and self-control.ConclusionIt is believed that these connections will lead to a deeper understanding of the significant processes in adolescence and serve as a foundation for developing and implementing psycho-educational interventions related to these variables.

Healthy Minds Index: A brief measure of the core dimensions of well-being.

We developed a self-report measure of psychological well-being for teens and adults, the Healthy Minds Index, based on a novel theory that four trainable pillars underlie well-being: awareness, connection, insight, and purpose. Ninety-seven items were developed and revised by experts and guided by qualitative testing with teens (n = 32; average age = 16.0 years). After assessing the internal validity and factor structure in teens (n = 1607; average age = 16.7 years) and adults (n = 420; average age = 45.6 years), we reduced the survey to 17 items. We then validated the factor structure, internal and convergent and divergent validity, and retest reliability of the 17-item Healthy Minds Index in two new teen samples (study 1: n = 1492, average age = 15.7 years; study 2: n = 295, average age = 16.1 years), and one adult sample (n = 285; average age = 45.3 years). The Healthy Minds Index demonstrated adequate validity and provided a comprehensive measure of a novel theory of psychological well-being that includes two domains not found in other conceptualizations of this construct-awareness and insight. This measure will be invaluable for primary research on well-being and as a translational tool to assess the impact and efficacy of widely used behavioral training programs on these core dimensions of wellbeing.

Firearm ownership factors and cognitive functioning: A preliminary study

Recent studies have suggested that owning a firearm for the purpose of protection and intending to acquire a firearm within the next year are associated with disrupted cognitive-affective processes that may increase firearm suicide risk. Prior studies were limited by self-report measures and would benefit from the utilization of objective indicators of cognitive functioning to clarify associations between firearm ownership and cognitive-affective states. The present study examined objective cognitive performance in a sample of U.S. adults in relation to firearm ownership variables. Based on prior studies, we hypothesized that protective owners and individuals with the intention to acquire a firearm within the next year would demonstrate reduced performance on decision-making, mental flexibility, and emotional bias tasks. A total of 112 participants (61% female, 79% white) completed objective cognitive tasks following completion of a larger survey study through ResearchMatch. Results indicated that intention to purchase a firearm within the next year was not associated with cognitive functioning but was associated with an array of heightened psychiatric symptoms. Owning a firearm for the purpose of protection was associated with decreased mental flexibility relative to non-owners, but no differences were seen for decision-making or emotional bias. These findings represent the first attempt to examine underlying objective cognitive processes related to firearm ownership, and implications for future research are discussed.

The effects of family support and smartphone-derived homestay on daily mood and depression among sexual and gender minority adolescents.

Sexual and gender minority (SGM) adolescents are at elevated risk for depression. This risk is especially pronounced among adolescents whose home environment is unsupportive or nonaffirming, as these adolescents may face familial rejection due to their identity. Therefore, it is critical to better understand the mechanisms underlying this risk by probing temporally sensitive associations between negative mood and time spent in potentially hostile home environments. The current study included adolescents (N = 141; 43% SGM; 13-18 years old), oversampled for depression history, who completed clinical interviews assessing lifetime psychiatric history and depression severity as well as self-report measures of social support. Participants also installed an app on their personal smartphones, which assessed their daily mood and geolocation-determined mobility patterns over a 6-month follow-up period. Over the 6-month follow-up period, SGM adolescents reported elevated depression severity and lower daily mood relative to non-SGM youth. Interestingly, SGM adolescents who reported low family support experienced lower daily mood than non-SGM adolescents, particularly on days when they spent more time at home. Current findings reinforce evidence for disparities in depression severity among SGM adolescents and highlight family support as a key factor. Specifically, more time spent in home environments with low family support was associated with worse mood among SGM adolescents. These results underscore the need for clinical interventions to support SGM youth, particularly interventions that focus on familial relationships and social support within the home environment. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Evidence for strong genetic correlations among internalizing psychopathology and related self-reported measures using both genomic and twin/adoptive approaches.

Evidence for strong genetic correlations among internalizing psychopathology and related self-reported measures using both genomic and twin/adoptive approaches.

Prevention regulatory focus, desired cultural tightness, civic moral disengagement, and emotional reactions to normative daily transgressions: a serial mediation model among adults in Italy

Why do people have positive or indifferent reactions to norm violations? The present research hypothesized that individuals who focus on the avoidance of negative outcomes, for example punishments for rule violations, (i.e., a prevention focus) are hypothesized to also have a desire for rigid and clear norms (i.e., desired cultural tightness) as well as punishments for norm violations. Such norms and punishments narrow accepted behavior and, if clearly communicated, can limit rule violations. Consequently, individuals who desire higher levels of cultural tightness should be less likely to justify poor citizenship behavior (i.e., civic moral disengagement) as this behavior is antithetical to desired cultural tightness. Finally, such individuals should also be more likely to react negatively to norm violations. Data for the present study was conducted in Italy. A total of 1,181 participants were included in the analysis; participation requirements were that they be adults who were residents of Italy. Participants completed self-report measures of the prevention focus, desired cultural tightness, civic moral disengagement, and reactions to general norm violations (e.g., exceeding the speed limit, vandalism). The hypothesized serial mediation model was supported. This model can help explain why individuals can fail to react to “everyday” norm violations, as well societal-level violations (e.g., failing to respect hygienic standards during the COVID pandemic). It also calls on the need to develop mass communication approaches that can influence individuals’ prevention focus on a large scale, as this can have downstream effects of reactions to such violations.

Supplemental Material for Evidence for Strong Genetic Correlations Among Internalizing Psychopathology and Related Self-Reported Measures Using Both Genomic and Twin/Adoptive Approaches

Supplemental Material for Evidence for Strong Genetic Correlations Among Internalizing Psychopathology and Related Self-Reported Measures Using Both Genomic and Twin/Adoptive Approaches

Randomized controlled trial of an Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and compassion-based group intervention for persons with inflammatory bowel disease: the LIFEwithIBD intervention

ObjectivesThis study tested the acceptability and efficacy of an Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and compassion-based intervention (LIFEwithIBD) in people with IBD through a two-arm RCT.MethodsParticipants were recruited at the Gastroenterology Department of the Coimbra University Hospital between June and September 2019. Of the 355 patients screened, those who accepted to participate were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: experimental group (LIFEwithIBD; n = 25) or control group (waitlist; n = 29). Participants completed self-report measures at baseline (T0), post-intervention (T1), and 3-month (T2) and 12-month (T3) follow-ups. Intervention acceptability was assessed. Efficacy was examined using intent-to-treat ANCOVA at post-intervention after adjusting for baseline values of depressive, anxiety, and stress symptoms (primary outcomes). Linear mixed models for all longitudinal outcomes were also analysed. Inflammatory and disease biomarkers were determined at T0 and T3.ResultsAcceptability results revealed a high level of satisfaction and perceived usefulness regarding the intervention. Both groups experienced a significant decrease in stress symptoms and IBD symptom perception at T1. No significant differences were observed at follow-up for the primary outcomes. The experimental group reported significantly lower Crohn’s disease Symptom severity at T2 than the control group. Post-hoc analyses designed to mitigate floor effects revealed substantial treatment effects for the experimental group regarding anxiety symptoms. No significant differences were observed in clinical biomarkers from T0 to T3.ConclusionThe LIFEwithIBD intervention shows promising, although preliminary, benefits for managing disease activity and reducing anxiety symptoms in IBD patients with high severity of psychological distress.Clinical trial registration: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03840707, identifier NCT03840707.

Psychometric properties of the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire Short Form (OHQ-SF) in a Greek student sample

BackgroundThe purpose of the current study was to adapt and explore the psychometric properties of the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire Short Form (OHQ-SF) in a Greek student sample.AimThis quantitative cross-sectional study was applied in order to translate and validate the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire Short Form (OHQ-SF) into Greek and to assess the psychometric properties.MethodThe English version of OHQ-SF was translated into Greek using the forward and backward translation. The sample was consisted of 88 adult students from the Public Educational Training Institution in Thessaloniki. Two self-report measures the Greek version of OHQ-SF and the Greek version of the Life Orientation Test Revised (LOT-R—to check the construct validity) were completed twice, for test and retest assessment, in full anonymity and confidentiality.Statistical analysisThe psychometric properties of OHQ-SF/GR, namely the internal–external reliability and construct validity, were assessed, and the expected unidimensional structure was tested with Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA).Results and discussionThe Greek version of OHQ-SF (OHQ-SF/GR), for both test and retest, has adequate internal reliability, satisfactory structural validity, and adequate construct validity. The CFA indicated the unidimensional structure of the OHQ-SF/GR, and the fit indexes displayed good fit with the data. One item was removed due to poor correlation with the latent factor of happiness. The current study reveals that the final seven-item OHQ-SF/GR has very satisfactory psychometric properties being useful instrument to measure happiness levels in Greek adult students and is a valid tool that can be utilised in research field.