Use Of Self-regulated Learning Strategies Research Articles

Gender differences in the relations between EFL students' classroom relationships and English language proficiency: The mediating role of self-regulated learning strategy use

This study aimed to explore English as a foreign language (EFL) students' classroom relationships (i.e., teacher-student relationships and peer relationships) and understand how these relationships contribute to English language proficiency between boys and girls. This paper discussed and highlighted the mediating role of self-regulated learning (SRL) strategy use. Self-report questionnaires with 436 4th-5th graders were adopted in a Chinese cultural context. Results of MANOVA revealed that there were generally no gender differences in teacher-student relationships and peer relationships. However, girls tended to use more SRL strategies (i.e., metacognitive and social strategies) than boys, while boys reported a higher level of English language proficiency than girls. Importantly, results from Multi-Group Structural Equation Modelling (MGSEM) suggested that the mediation effects of SRL strategy use between classroom relationships and English language proficiency were significantly different between boys and girls. Specifically, while boys' teacher-student relationships predicted their English language proficiency through metacognitive SRL strategy use, girls' English language proficiency was influenced by their peer relationships through the mediation of metacognitive SRL strategy use. Implications for classroom instructions and EFL teachers to promote boys' and girls’ English language learning through classroom relationships and SRL strategy use in a Chinese cultural context are discussed.

Measuring secondary school students’ L2 writing self‐regulated strategies in the Korean EFL context

AbstractThis study examined the evidence for the reliability and validity of the Self‐Regulatory Writing Strategy Questionnaire (SRWSQ) and its suitability for the Korean English as a foreign language (EFL) context. The results indicated that the six dimensions of self‐regulated learning (SRL) strategies (writing planning, goal‐oriented monitoring, goal‐oriented evaluation, emotional control, metacognitive judgment, and memorization strategies) were closely but independently related to each other, falling under the overarching construct of self‐regulation. However, certain items require revision to ensure a more culturally sensitive measurement of SRL strategies in the Korean EFL context. The study observed differences in the use of SRL strategies based on gender and grade level. Furthermore, the use of SRL strategies significantly influenced students’ writing achievement. The study underscores the importance of SRL writing strategies in EFL contexts and discusses implications for teachers and future research.

More is not always better? Vocabulary learning strategies instruction in online environment

ABSTRACT Prior studies have reported positive outcomes of technology-enhanced vocabulary learning and recommended self-regulated learning (SRL) as a design principle for the relevant technologies. However, there has not hitherto been any comprehensive study of the combined use of SRL and specific vocabulary-learning strategies in technology-enhanced learning environments. This study addresses this gap by conducting an experiment on the development of an educational website that promotes self-regulated vocabulary learning. Prior to undergoing a six-week training program, 120 participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups based on two vocabulary-learning strategies: (1) a lexical-inference group; (2) a dictionary-use group; or (3) a dictionary-use with lexical-inference group. Comparisons of the gain scores among the three groups revealed that the lexical-inference group demonstrated the best performance in terms of vocabulary retention, while the dictionary-use group excelled in vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. Additionally, simultaneous utilization of these strategies may lead to some adverse effects. These findings highlight the importance of vocabulary learners developing a clear understanding of when to employ a specific strategy, honing their ability to effectively transfer between strategies, and enhancing their proficiency in each strategy. By doing so, learners can potentially maximize the benefits derived from their vocabulary learning endeavors.

“Does my teacher believe I can improve?”: The role of EFL learners’ meta-lay theories in their growth mindset and online self-regulation

While there is growing awareness that self-regulated learning (SRL) is an essential component of 21st-century skills, this topic is in its infancy within online second language (L2) education. Complicated by the impact of racing tech, online L2 education presents both opportunities and challenges, such that developing self-regulated language learners gains immediate urgency. Despite the large body of SRL literature on traditional classroom settings, very little is known about whether and how language learners at lower educational levels self-regulate their language learning in online classes and the degree to which their language teachers' beliefs shape their online SRL strategies. This study examined middle and senior high school EFL (English as a foreign language) learners' SRL strategy use in online language classes and its relations with learners' growth language mindset and meta-lay theories about their English teachers. Based on data collected from 524 students (M = 14.54 years) in northwestern China, the present study revealed a “meta-lay theory—mindset—SRL” model pertaining to students' perceptions about their English teachers' intellectual beliefs, which further predicted students' SRL strategies in online classes with the growth mindset as a mediator in between. Additionally, the study gauged the uniqueness of younger language learners’ language mindsets and meta-lay theories and the context-specificity of SRL strategies in online language classes. Pedagogical implications and suggestions for future research were also discussed.

Effects of Students’ Autonomy Support on their Self-Regulated Learning Strategies: Three Field Experiments in Secondary Education

Providing students with autonomy over their learning process can support the development of their self-regulation skills. This study aimed to examine the effects of autonomy-support interventions on students’ self-regulated learning strategies. The participants were 432 students from three secondary schools in the Netherlands. In each school, a one-year field experiment was performed, in which teachers and students shared control over learning processes. At the start and end of the school year, students from both the experimental and control conditions completed a questionnaire on perceived autonomy support and self-regulation strategies used. Univariate analyses of covariance were performed to examine the effects of the interventions on perceived autonomy support and the use of self-regulated learning strategies. The intervention with the highest amount of student control showed positive effects on self-regulated learning strategies ‘task orientation’, ‘planning’, and ‘process evaluation’, although it did show a small decrease in perceived autonomy support. The other two interventions showed an increase in perceived autonomy support and a positive trend in ‘monitoring’. The field experiments suggest that different ways of supporting student autonomy can yield different effects on students’ self-regulated learning strategies. The tentative conclusion is that a focus on student control is the most effective.

The impact of future L2 selves and positive emotions on self-regulated writing strategies: A mixed method approach

While extensive research supported the facilitative role of motivation in general self-regulated learning (SRL) strategy use, its connection to writing-specific SRL strategy use remains underexplored. Furthermore, the exploration of the interplay between motivation and SRL strategy use in second or foreign (L2) writing was absent within the motivational-self system. Even less is known about the mechanism between motivational factors and SRL strategy use in L2 writing. This study aims to fill the gap by testing the mediating role of positive emotions (enjoyment, pride, and hope) between future L2 writing selves (ideal L2 self and ought-to L2 self) and SRL strategy use in the Chinese English as a foreign language (EFL) writing context with a mixed method design incorporating both quantitative and qualitative methods. Three hundred and sixty students enrolled in College English writing classes were recruited and they reported their responses to standardized measures. Results of structural equation modelling (SEM) showed that positive emotions partially mediated the link between ideal L2 writing selves and SRL but not between ought-to L2 writing selves and SRL. Semi-structured interviews about students’ in-depth perceptions of the three constructs complemented our quantitative results. Theoretical and pedagogical implications are also discussed.

Self-regulatory learning strategies involving the use of linguistic landscape: the case of undergraduate multilingual learners

Capitalising on research into self-regulated learning strategies (SRLS), the study reported in the present paper explored the use of SRLS by multilingual learners in the context of the linguistic landscape. We designed the Linguistic Landscape (LL) SRLS Inventory, used it for data collection and validated it. Insights were provided by 100 undergraduate students of English and German and concerned searching for opportunities to learn from LL, paying attention to LL, creating mental linkages with LL, and organising LL-based learning. Statistical analyses revealed that the use of LL SRLS was affected by reading comprehension skills and varied substantially across SR stages.

Investigating pedagogical agents' scaffolding of self‐regulated learning in relation to learners' subgoals

AbstractIntelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) incorporate pedagogical agents (PAs) to scaffold learners' self‐regulated learning (SRL) via prompts and feedback to promote learners' monitoring and regulation of their cognitive, affective, metacognitive and motivational processes to achieve their (sub)goals. This study examines PAs' effectiveness in scaffolding and teaching SRL during learning with MetaTutor, an ITS on the human circulatory system. Undergraduates (N = 118) were randomly assigned to a condition: Control Condition (i.e. learners could only self‐initiate SRL strategies) and Prompt and Feedback Condition (i.e. PAs prompted learners to engage in SRL). Learners' log‐file data captured when strategies were used, the initiator of the strategy (i.e. learner and PA), and the relevance of instructional content pages in relation to learner subgoals. While results showed that PAs were effective scaffolders of SRL in which they prompted learners to engage in SRL strategies more when content was relevant towards their subgoals and as time on page and task increased, there were mixed findings about the effectiveness of PAs as teachers of SRL. Findings show how production rules guiding PA prompts can improve their scaffolding and teaching of SRL across the learning task – through contextualizing SRL strategies to the instructional content and in relation to the relevance of the content to learners' subgoals.Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Most learners struggle to efficiently and effectively use self‐regulated learning (SRL) strategies to attain goals and subgoals. There is a need for SRL to be scaffolded for learners to manage multiple goals and subgoals while learning about complex STEM topics. Intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) typically incorporate pedagogical agents (PAs) to prompt learners to engage in SRL strategy and provide feedback. There are mixed findings on the effectiveness of PAs in scaffolding learners' SRL. What this paper adds We consider PAs not only scaffolders but also teachers of SRL. Results showed that while PAs encouraged the use of SRL strategies when the content was relevant to subgoals, they did not discourage the use of SRL strategies when the content was not relevant. Results for this study were mixed in their support of PAs as teachers of SRL. Learners increasingly depended on PAs to prompt SRL strategies as time on task progressed. Implications for practice and/or policy PAs are effective scaffolders of SRL with more research needed to understand their role as teachers of SRL. PA scaffolding is more essential as time on task progresses. When deploying specific cognitive and metacognitive SRL strategies, the relevance of the content to learners' subgoals should be taken into account.

Towards prescriptive analytics of self‐regulated learning strategies: A reinforcement learning approach

AbstractSelf‐regulated learning (SRL) is an essential skill to achieve one's learning goals. This is particularly true for online learning environments (OLEs) where the support system is often limited compared to a traditional classroom setting. Likewise, existing research has found that learners often struggle to adapt their behaviour to the self‐regulatory demands of OLEs. Even so, existing SRL analysis tools have limited utility for real‐time or individualised support of a learner's SRL strategy during a study session. Accordingly, we explore a reinforcement learning based approach to learning optimal SRL strategies for a specific learning task. Specifically, we utilise the sequences of SRL processes acted by 44 participants, and their assessment scores for a prescribed learning task, in a purpose‐built OLE to develop a long short‐term memory (LSTM) network based reward function. This is used to train a reinforcement learning agent to find the optimal sequence of SRL processes for the learning task. Our findings indicate that the developed agents were able to effectively select SRL processes so as to maximise a prescribed learning goal as measured by predicted assessment score and predicted knowledge gains. The contributions of this work will facilitate the development of a tool which can detect sub‐optimal SRL strategy in real‐time and enable individualised SRL focused scaffolding. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Learners often fail to adequately adapt their behavior to the self‐regulatory demands of e‐Learning environments. In order to promote effective Self‐regulated learning (SRL) capabilities, researchers and educators need tools that are able to analyze and diagnose a learner's SRL strategy use. Current methods for SRL analysis are more often descriptive as opposed to prescriptive and have limited utility for real‐time analysis or support of a learner's SRL behavior. What this paper adds This paper proposes the use of Reinforcement Learning for prescriptive analytics of SRL. We train a Reinforcement Learning agent on sequences of SRL processes acted by learners in order to learn the optimal SRL strategy for a given learning task. Implications for practice and/or policy Our work will facilitate the development of a tool which can detect sub‐optimal SRL strategy in real‐time and enable individualized SRL focused scaffolding. The implications of our work can aid in course design by predicting the self‐regulatory load imposed by a given task. The ability to model SRL strategies using Reinforcement Learning can be extended to simulate or test SRL theories.

The relationship between self‐regulated learning strategy use and task engagement

AbstractDrawing on the explanatory sequential mixed‐methods design, the present study aims to investigate the relationship, if any, between self‐regulated learning (SRL) strategy use and task engagement. The participants of the study were 361 Iranian EFL students majoring in English language teaching or English language and literature for the B.A. degree, with a B1 English language proficiency level, based on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Questionnaire surveys, narrative frames, and semi‐structured interviews were used to collect the data remotely during the COVID‐19 pandemic. The results of quantitative data analysis showed that SRL strategy use is a significant predictor of task engagement. The results of the qualitative analysis also pointed to the importance of SRL strategies, including (meta)cognitive, (meta)affective, (meta)motivational, and (meta)social strategies, to maintain task engagement. The results of the study may be used to inform English language teachers, learners, materials developers, and measurement instrument developers.

Investigating the relationship between self-regulated learning, metacognition, and executive functions by focusing on academic transition phases: a systematic review

The importance of self-regulated learning (SRL) for academic learning and achievement is already well established. In terms of developing a comprehensive understanding of SRL, executive functions (EFs), which are seen as an important influential factor for learning and goal-oriented behavior, should be taken into consideration. Some authors have linked SRL and EF via metacognition (MC), which forms a fundamental component of SRL, and like EF, represents higher-level cognitive processes. Therefore, this systematic review searched education and psychology databases to determine the natural development and current state of research on the three constructs. Academic transitional periods were brought into focus because of their influence on learners’ well-being and academic achievement. An evaluation of 30 publications indicated that strong development of simple EFs occurs before the transition from preschool to primary school. Moreover, there is a decrease in the motivational component of SRL and the use of metacognitive SRL strategies during the transition from primary to secondary education but an increase in metacognitive awareness. Simple as well as complex EFs also increase during this transition, with a later developmental peak for complex EF. The transition from secondary to tertiary education is accompanied by positive developments in the cognitive and metacognitive components of SRL, with small increases for simple EFs, and larger increases for complex EFs. In conclusion, the findings suggest there is an early developmental maximum for EFs compared to SRL and MC, which supports the theory that EFs are the foundation for SRL and MC.

Validating a scale to measure self-regulated learning strategies for independent listening beyond the EFL classroom

The present study aimed to validate a self-report questionnaire created and used in Yabukoshi (2023) to assess learners’ perceived use of self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies for practicing listening skills to improve the TOEIC® listening scores outside the classroom in an English as a foreign language (EFL) context. The instrument comprised 14 items on metacognitive SRL strategies used for out-of-class listening practice, which were divided into three subscales: strategies used in the forethought, performance, and self-reflection phases, drawing on Zimmerman's SRL model. The questionnaire was administered to 135 EFL undergraduates in Japan and subjected to a psychometric evaluation to determine its structural aspect of validity through reliability tests and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), as well as to assess its convergent and discriminant validity and its external aspect of validity (i.e., predictive validity). The instrument had sufficient internal consistency based on reliability tests (Cronbach's alpha). The CFA results indicated a relatively good and reasonable model fit, and the convergent validity was found to be adequate. The discriminant validity was not satisfactory, which was discussed based on SRL theory and previous empirical evidence. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the three strategy factors as a whole were a strong predictor of learners’ listening proficiency. The empirical evidence provides preliminary support for the application of SRL theory to the field of EFL listening. The results of this study contribute to the limited research on the assessment of SRL strategy use for listening practice outside EFL classrooms.

Comparing Blended and Online Learners’ Self-Efficacy, Self-Regulation, and Actual Learning in the context of Educational Technology

In this quantitative comparative study, we explored the differences in technology integration self-efficacy, use of self-regulated learning strategies, and actual learning between preservice teachers enrolled in blended sections (n = 275) and online sections (n = 50) of the same introductory educational technology course. The results revealed that preservice teachers enrolled in the online format of the course reported a significantly higher level of using time management strategies, but a significantly lower level of employing help-seeking strategies compared to preservice teachers enrolled in the blended format of the course. However, no significant differences in technology integration self-efficacy and actual learning existed. Results offer insight for designing educational technology courses that align with the needs of both online and blended learners and preparing preservice teachers that likely will be responsible for facilitating blended and online learning with their own students.

What College Freshmen Believe About Themselves: An Investigation of Mathematical Mindset, Identity, Self-Efficacy, and Use of Self-Regulated Learning Strategies in Mathematics

What College Freshmen Believe About Themselves: An Investigation of Mathematical Mindset, Identity, Self-Efficacy, and Use of Self-Regulated Learning Strategies in Mathematics

Investigating Pre-University Students’ Motivation to Learn and Their Use of Self-Regulated Learning Strategies

Investigating Pre-University Students’ Motivation to Learn and Their Use of Self-Regulated Learning Strategies

Exploring differences in self-regulated learning strategy use between high- and low-performing students in introductory programming: An analysis of eye-tracking and retrospective think-aloud data from program comprehension

Previous studies have reported mixed results regarding the relationship between students’ use of self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies and their performance in introductory programming courses. These studies were constrained by their reliance on self-report questionnaires as a means of collecting and analysing data. To address this limitation, this study aimed to employ eye-tracking and retrospective think-aloud techniques to identify differences in SRL strategy use for program comprehension tasks between high-performing students (N = 31) and low-performing students (N = 31) in an undergraduate programming course. All participants attended individual eye-tracking sessions to comprehend two Python program codes with different constructs. Their eye-tracking data and video-recalled retrospective think-aloud data were captured and recorded for analysis. The findings reveal that higher-order cognitive skills, such as elaboration and critical thinking, were mostly adopted by high-performing students, while basic cognitive and resource management strategy, such as rehearsal and help-seeking, were mostly employed by low-performing students when comprehending the program codes. This study not only demonstrates the design of combining eye-tracking and retrospective think-aloud data to explore students’ use of SRL strategies but also provides evidence to support the notion that program comprehension is a complex process that cannot be effectively addressed by employing merely rudimentary strategies, such as repetitively reading the same code segment. In the future, researchers could explore the possibility of using a webcam to monitor and assess students’ online programming processes and provide feedback based on their eye movements. They could also examine the effects of SRL strategies training on students’ motivation, engagement, and performance in various types of programming activities.

Self-Regulated Learning In Blended Learning Environment

Background: 
 As technology advances and online learning becomes increasingly prevalent, consideration of students' metacognitive skills grows in importance. This study aims to provide insight into the influence of Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) on the academic outcomes of English students while examining the dominant component within SRL and assessing whether there is a relationship between the use of SRL and gender.
 Methodology: 
 The research involved 123 students from the English Department of Universitas Negeri Manado (Unima), located in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. An adjusted questionnaire was utilized in a web-based survey to explore the use of SRL amid blended learning settings.
 Findings: 
 The statistical analysis revealed a positive relationship between SRL and the learning outcomes of the students in the blended learning environment. In particular, students predominantly used achievement orientation as their SRL component in the blended learning environment, while gender differences in the use of SRL strategies were found to be statistically insignificant.
 Conclusion: 
 As a result, this study highlights the importance of self-regulated learning in the improvement of student outcomes in a blended learning environment. The prominence of performance orientation is a noteworthy aspect of SRL application. Additionally, the lack of notable gender-based disparities in the utilization of SRL implies a level of equality in the educational setting.
 Originality: 
 This study aims to fill an important gap in current understanding by exploring the complex relationship between SRLs, gender and blended environments among English language learners. By investigating the dynamics of effective learning strategies in the current digital age, this study aims to contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the factors that influence academic success and pave the way for targeted educational interventions.

Mentoring underrepresented students for success: Self-regulated learning strategies as a critical link between mentor support and educational attainment

Growing and diversifying science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) professional communities is critically important. According to the Process Model of Mentoring Interactions, two areas of research can be leveraged in pursuit of this goal: mentoring and self-regulated learning (SRL). This study examined the mediating role of learning strategies in explaining how implicit theories of intelligence (mindset) and mentoring support predict academic achievement among university students (operationalized as highest degree attained). Participants (N = 1,094) were from historically underrepresented backgrounds pursuing an undergraduate STEM degree from one of 38 universities across the U.S. Longitudinal data were collected via biannual surveys (fall, spring semesters) to assess academic mindset, faculty mentoring, learning strategy use, and highest degree attained (measured by National Student Clearinghouse graduation/enrollment data). Parallel processes latent growth-curves in a structural equation modeling framework were used to test the mediating role of strategy use on academic achievement. Results showed that reported strategy use was stable over time and mediated the relationship between faculty mentoring support and highest degree attained. Both having a faculty mentor as an undergraduate (vs. not) and higher quality of mentor support predicted higher strategy use, which in turn predicted higher degree attainment. Mindset was unrelated to strategy use or academic achievement. This study is one of the first to empirically demonstrate one process by which mentoring leads to greater academic achievement: via students’ use of SRL strategies.

Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Self-Regulated Learning Strategies in Learning English as a Second Language

These case studies provide a description of five undergraduates’ self-efficacy beliefs and use of self-regulated learning strategies related to learning English as a second language. A qualitative research design with a purposive sampling method was used. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to investigate the context of learning English language and to explore the undergraduates’ self-reported self-efficacy beliefs and self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies. Classroom observations and document analysis were also used for data collection. The findings showed a relationship between self-efficacy, self-regulated learning strategies, and participants’ English language proficiency. Pedagogical implications for language instructors are highlighted. ESL learning may be enhanced through positive and successful past experiences and constructive feedback and scaffolding by language instructors. Self-regulated learning instruction should be incorporated by ESL instructors in developing self-regulated learners.

Daily automated feedback enhances self-regulated learning: a longitudinal randomized field experiment.

The goal of the present study was to investigate the effects of automatically generated, adaptive feedback on daily self-regulated learning (SRL) in an experimental field study. University students reported their application of SRL strategies in the morning and in the evening over the course of 36 days using electronic learning diaries. Students were randomly assigned to the experimental group with feedback (LDF, n = 98) or the control group without feedback (LD, n = 96). Based on their self-reports, students in group LDF received daily written feedback regarding their satisfaction with the study day, adherence to time schedule, procrastination, and effort. This feedback either reinforced students in their study approach (confirmative feedback), encompassed information on learning outcomes or processes (informative feedback), or included feed forward on how to improve learning processes (transformative feedback). Multilevel analysis of daily process data revealed better average goal setting, planning and adherence to time schedule, as well as higher self-efficacy, and satisfaction with the study day in group LDF compared to group LD. Motivation, procrastination and effort were not affected by feedback. In contrast to the process measures, pre-post comparisons of students' self-reported general use of SRL strategies (trait measures) did not reveal any effects of feedback on SRL. Further explorative analyses investigated the effects of confirmative, informative, and transformative feedback on next day's learning behavior, showing that confirmative and transformative feedback had stronger effects on students' satisfaction and procrastination than informative feedback. Transformative feedback, which included specific strategies for moving forward, was effective in improving time management. Results provide theoretical insight into the interplay of feedback and SRL and offer practical implications regarding the design of feedback in a learning context.