Occurrence of tick-borne pathogens in questing ticks, ticks from riding horses, and red deer blood in Western Pomerania, Poland.

Gastrointestinal and respiratory helminths of free-ranging red deer at the wildlife-livestock interface in Türkiye.

Evidence regarding the impacts of supervised drug consumption services (SDC) remains mixed, and few evaluations have used individual-level, linkable health data to examine service withdrawal. In September 2024, the Red Deer overdose prevention site (OPS) in Alberta, Canada, was scheduled for closure, with operations ceasing on 31 March 2025. This study examined: (1) changes in weekly opioid agonist therapy (OAT) dispensing among identifiable OPS clients associated with the closure announcement and subsequent service cessation; and (2) changes in acute healthcare utilization and mortality. Retrospective cohort study using linked provincial administrative health data from 30 June 2024 to 6 months after the Red Deer site closure (27 September 2025). A segmented difference-in-differences interrupted time-series (DID-ITS) design compared Red Deer OPS clients with clients from a continuously operating OPS in Lethbridge. Within-site interrupted time-series (ITS) models were applied for Red Deer-only analyses. Two provincially regulated OPS programs in Alberta, Canada. The Red Deer OPS closure was publicly announced on 24 September 2024 and implemented on 31 March 2025. The Lethbridge OPS remained operational throughout. OPS clients with a linked personal health number (PHN) and at least one consumption event at the Red Deer (n = 381) and Lethbridge sites (n = 300). Primary outcome: weekly proportion of clients receiving ≥1 OAT dispensing. weekly emergency department (ED) visits, inpatient (IP) admissions, suspected opioid-related emergency medical services (EMS) events and mortality. Prior to the closure announcement, baseline weekly OAT proportions were lower in Red Deer (9.9%) than in Lethbridge (12.0%), with broadly similar pre-announcement trends. After the closure, the proportion of clients on OAT in Red Deer exceeded those in Lethbridge (16.1% versus 14.4%, respectively; P < 0.021). After closure, there was no statistically significant difference in the number of ED visits or suspected opioid-related EMS events in both the Red Deer only ITS models or in the proportion of these outcomes in the DID-ITS model comparing Red Deer and Lethbridge. Mortality events were rare during the follow-up period, and no statistically detectable increase was observed over the available follow-up. The announcement and subsequent closure of the Red Deer overdose prevention site in Alberta, Canada, were associated with increased opioid agonist therapy dispensing among identifiable site users. Short-term effects on acute healthcare utilization and mortality appear stable but remain inconclusive due to the limited 26-week follow-up period and low event counts.

This study evaluated the feasibility of incorporating a protein-oil emulsion based on beef tripe, meat trimmings, and vegetable oil into semi-smoked sausages produced from maral (red deer) meat, with maral fat used as the sole animal fat source. Four sausage variants were formulated and produced to evaluate the effects of different protein-oil emulsion inclusion levels (0, 10, 15, and 20%) on nutritional, textural, and sensory characteristics. Replacement of part of the maral fat with the protein-oil emulsion resulted in a reduction in total fat content (11.6-14.7%) while protein levels remained stable (20.6-21.4%). Fatty acid analysis demonstrated a significant decrease in saturated fatty acids (from 54.64% in the control to 35.45% in the highest emulsion variant) accompanied by a marked increase in polyunsaturated fatty acids (from 22.20% to 37.57%), primarily due to higher linoleic acid content. Texture profile analysis showed a progressive reduction in hardness, gumminess, and chewiness with increasing emulsion inclusion (p < 0.05), whereas springiness and cohesiveness were not significantly affected (p > 0.05), indicating the preservation of elastic and cohesive properties. Sensory evaluation confirmed that sausages containing moderate levels of the protein-oil emulsion maintained favorable appearance, flavor, and juiciness, with no adverse effects on overall acceptability. These results indicate that combining maral fat with a protein-oil emulsion is an effective strategy for producing nutritionally improved red deer meat sausages with balanced lipid composition and consumer-acceptable texture and sensory quality.

Red deer milk is known for its high nutritional quality, containing elevated levels of protein, fat, and essential minerals compared with other ruminant milks. This study investigates the protein profile of red deer milk across various lactation stages, using advanced liquid chromatography-MS/MS techniques to enhance understanding of its nutritional composition. In this study, milk samples were collected from 120 lactating does at 8 distinct points during the lactation period, ensuring consistent dietary conditions. Through this comprehensive approach, a total of 73 proteins were identified, with 9 previously known in deer milk. Significant variations in protein concentrations were observed, highlighting 27 proteins with substantial changes throughout lactation. These proteins are crucial for supporting the physiological needs of the fawn. Key findings revealed the roles of specific proteins, such as osteopontin and lactotransferrin, in immune function, alongside transport proteins involved in nutrient delivery, reflecting the dynamic requirements during lactation. Bioinformatics analysis indicated significant quantitative changes in protein expression, with regression analysis confirming these findings. Gene Ontology analysis was conducted; however, limitations in genomic data for red deer necessitated reliance on related species for functional annotation. The results underscore the complex biochemical changes in deer milk, establishing a foundational understanding of its unique proteome. In conclusion, despite identifying fewer proteins than observed in studies of other ruminants, this research represents the most thorough analysis of proteins in red deer milk to date. It emphasizes the dynamic nature of milk composition throughout lactation and its implications for nutritional and functional attributes in cosmetic products and food, thereby contributing valuable insights into the dairy potential of red deer.

Comparative analysis for classification of cervical cancer cells using binary red deer algorithm and ResNet framework

Central Europe faces an overabundance of wild ungulates, which is driven by several factors, including traditional hunting practices. The harvest of females is insufficient and recorded without verification, even when they were not actually hunted. This practice contributes to further population growth through accurate hunting records. Therefore, basic procedures for automated registration based on muzzle pattern animal biometric evaluation of harvested wild ungulates were proposed. The red deer (Cervus elaphus) served as the model species. For the assessment of biometric characteristics, 2,193 photographs were taken from the frontal and overhead directions of 972 harvested red deer during regular game management. A comparison of the collected images using the LoFTR (Local Feature TRansformer) method revealed the potential for individual identification, with the peak accuracy of 95.048%. On the contrary, the minimum accuracy was 90.048% using a combination of overhead and frontal images of high and medium quality. Because there is no solution for the recognition of ungulates the comparison of these results was performed with the recognition systems for pets and livestock. Achieved accuracy is around 2% better than comparable recognition systems (with similar dataset size, number of feature points, etc.). The results confirmed that biometric methods can be used to identify and record harvested game. This can be achieved by developing a mobile application that transmits images for automated comparison and evaluation. Once individual identity is confirmed, the animal will be registered. This ensures a verifiable record of harvested game and provides a solid foundation for sustainable hunting planning.

Many mosquito species act as vectors for zoonotic pathogens, transmitting them between natural amplifying hosts and dead-end hosts. Determining the relationship between mosquitoes and their hosts is crucial for understanding the lifecycle dynamics of such pathogens. The aim of this research was to assess the host-feeding patterns of mosquitoes inhabiting natural and semi-natural environments of Vojvodina Province, Serbia, using the invertebrate-derived DNA (iDNA) from blood-fed female mosquitoes. Mosquito species (Diptera: Culicidae) belonging to four genera were identified, based upon morphological characteristics. A segment of the 16S rRNA gene was amplified and sequenced, allowing for 10 different vertebrate host species to be identified. Culex specimens collected in this study primarily fed on birds, while mammal species constituted about a third of their bloodmeals. Species of Anopheles and Aedes overwhelmingly took bloodmeals from a single host species, the red deer, but also fed on other mammal species from diverse families. Our results indicate that enzootic and bridge vectors are active in the study area, feeding upon the respective host groups that could sustain transmission of mosquito-transmitted viruses, highlighting the need for continued surveillance of the region.

Trace minerals are essential for animal health but can also, together with heavy metals, have a negative impact, making their monitoring crucial to assess animal health. These elements were examined through a long-term post-mortem monitoring system based on routine liver sampling for Heck cattle, Konik horses and red deer in place at the Oostvaardersplassen nature reserve in the Netherlands, using data from this system to determine reference intervals and investigate trends in liver trace element concentrations. Throughout the monitoring programme, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry was used to measure concentrations of trace minerals and heavy metals, including arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, vanadium, and zinc. Species-specific patterns in trace element profiles were identified, with red deer showing comparatively higher copper levels and horses elevated iron and lead levels. Temporal declines in certain elements, including iron and lead, were observed across all species. Seasonal and age-related variations were also evident. Importantly, reference intervals estimated in this study differed from livestock standards, in particular for copper and selenium, highlighting the need for species- and context-specific reference intervals when assessing health in free-living herbivores. These findings provide valuable baseline data for ongoing environmental and health monitoring in minimally managed, multi-species populations at the reserve, highlighting the importance of mineral surveillance in free-living animals to enhance wildlife health assessment, track long-term environmental changes, and support management decisions in nature reserves across the Netherlands and more globally.

Fascioloides magna, an invasive trematode introduced to Europe in the 19th century, persists in two main foci: the Danube basin and La Mandria Natural Park (LMNP) in northern Italy. This study assessed whether the parasite has spread beyond LMNP and evaluated environmental and host-related risk factors. Between 2012 and 2023, 331 wild ruminant livers were examined, and faecal samples were analysed for fluke eggs. Gastropods from the LMNP were sampled using a predictive habitat suitability model and screened for F. magna DNA. Camera traps monitored ungulate movements across LMNP boundaries. Results confirmed the parasite's presence in red and fallow deer within LMNP and sporadic cases in roe deer, but no evidence of infection in wildlife or gastropods outside the park. Molecular screening detected F. magna DNA in 9.2%% of snails inside LMNP only. Despite occasional crossings by potential definitive hosts, ecological conditions outside LMNP appear unsuitable for sustaining the parasite's life cycle. These findings suggest a low current risk of spread but highlight the need for continued surveillance and barrier reinforcement. The integrated approach combining parasitology, molecular diagnostics, and GIS-based risk mapping provides a valuable framework for managing invasive parasitic diseases in wildlife.

ABSTRACTAcross Europe, landscapes where large carnivores, large herbivores and human communities coexist are expanding, reflecting the widespread recovery of large mammal populations in recent decades. The influence of top‐down effects of wolves on large herbivores has been extensively studied in areas with relatively little anthropogenic disturbance, but less is known about their effect in human‐dominated landscapes. We systematically collected camera‐trap data over five consecutive autumn hunting seasons in an area of the eastern Alps which is intensely frequented by tourists and trekkers, and partially open to ungulate hunting. We used a quasi‐experimental design, with half of the sampling sites located within nonhunting areas and half outside. Applying generalised additive mixed models (GAMMs) with cyclic cubic splines we investigated the effect of wolf, as well as lethal (hunting) and nonlethal (recreational) human activities on red deer spatiotemporal activity pattern. Similarly, we analysed the effect of recreational activities and red deer site‐use on the spatiotemporal activity pattern of wolves. Hunting was associated with overall lower red deer activity, as well as reduced dawn–dusk peaks and diurnality. Crucially, hunting interacted with outdoor recreation exacerbating its impact, with major changes to red deer activity curve. Wolf site‐use did not have a significant effect on the shape of red deer temporal curve. Wolves were markedly more active in areas highly used by red deer, and remained strongly nocturnal even where human activity was scarce. Our results show that humans, through both lethal and nonlethal activities, elicit stronger responses in red deer than their natural predator. Behavioural constraints imposed by humans on red deer, coupled with the cursorial predatory strategy of wolves, likely limit the possibility of wolf avoidance by red deer. In human‐dominated European landscapes, human disturbance can therefore override natural predator–prey dynamics, reshaping behavioural landscapes and potentially increasing predator and prey spatiotemporal co‐occurrence.

Norway spruce Picea abies is an economically important tree species in Europe, actively managed for forestry. Among the most negative biotic factors for growth and hence forest production is damage caused by wildlife, such as damage through bark stripping by red deer Cervus elaphus . We quantified bark stripping damage on Norway spruce trees in across 450 stands (aged 20–72 years) spanning a 400 km latitudinal range along Norway's west coast and analysed the underlying mechanisms driving increased probability of bark stripping by red deer. A total of 74% of tree stands had bark stripping damage. The mean percentage of damaged trees was 16.0%, but 50 stands (11.1% of the stands) had more than 50.0% damaged trees. The most important factor determining probability for bark stripping was broad‐scale red deer density, where the probability increased markedly when density reached approximately two harvested red deer per km 2 . In addition, proximity to agricultural farmland, distance from roads, site productivity, distance between twig whorls and terrain ruggedness index increased the probability of bark stripping. Our study on bark stripping on Norway spruce highlights the importance of red deer population control, but also the importance of evaluating environmental factors as well as site factors and tree characteristics in forestry planning to mitigate damage from red deer.

Epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus serotype 8 (EHDV-8) emerged in southern Europe in 2022-2023, but clinical and pathological characterization in free-ranging wildlife remains limited. This study investigated EHDV-8-associated morbidity and mortality in wild ruminants in a 2023 outbreak in Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas Natural Park (Jaén, Andalusia, Spain). Moribund animals demonstrated a consistent acute neuro-respiratory syndrome characterized by weakness, ataxia, nystagmus and severe dyspnoea with frothy oral discharge. On the carcasses of 39 red deer, two fallow deer, and one mouflon, necropsy was performed and subsequently histopathology and a real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) on the collected samples. Gross lesions included marked pulmonary oedema, tracheal foam and widespread congestion, while histopathology revealed lymphoid depletion, pulmonary haemorrhage, vascular injury and renal tubular necrosis. All animals tested positive for EHDV-8 with low RT-qPCR cycle threshold values, indicating high viral loads. This series provides the first confirmed clinical, pathological, and molecular evidence of EHDV-8 infection in fallow deer and mouflon in Europe. The observations demonstrate that EHDV-8 causes a peracute systemic haemorrhagic disease in susceptible wild ruminants and underline the importance of integrated wildlife surveillance and timely diagnostic sampling during peak vector activity.

Lungworms from the genus Dictyocaulus are known to cause catarrhal bronchitis and pulmonary atelectasis in domestic and wild ruminants. In red deer (Cervus elaphus), four Dictyocaulus species can be present in the respiratory tract. This study describes the investigation of mortalities in red deer (Cervus elaphus) in a commercial farm for red deer from Romania, associated with the presence of lungworms. Postmortem examination revealed the presence of nematodes in the bronchial lumen in all cases. Morphological and molecular examination of the nematodes recovered confirmed Dictyocaulus cervi as the species involved. The most probable cause of death in all four cases was respiratory failure due to the severe parasitic infection and cachexia. This study represents the first report of mortality associated with Dictyocaulus cervi in farmed deer and the first report of the species in Romania, highlighting the need for further epidemiological studies to assess its distribution and potential impact on other cervids in the country.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a significant public health concern and a leading cause of acute viral hepatitis worldwide. In recent years, HEV has been increasingly recognized as a wildlife-associated zoonotic pathogen, with numerous free-ranging species contributing to its maintenance and transmission. While domestic pigs remain the primary reservoir for human infection globally, growing evidence indicates that wild animals, particularly wild boars, cervids, lagomorphs, rodents, and carnivores, play a critical role in the ecology of HEV. Wild boars are the principal wildlife reservoir, with HEV seroprevalence in Europe ranging from less than 5% to more than 50%, including some of the highest levels reported in the Balkans. In addition to the frequent detection of HEV RNA in wild boar liver and muscle, viral RNA has also been identified in several other game species, most consistently in red deer, roe deer, and, in some regions, hares and wild rabbits, highlighting food safety risks associated with the consumption of raw or undercooked game meat. In regions such as the Balkans, where hunting activities and handling of wild game are widespread, these practices may further increase occupational and dietary exposure to HEV. Rodents may further complicate the epidemiological landscape through environmental contamination of water, soil, and farm surroundings, thereby facilitating indirect transmission pathways. As wildlife populations expand and human-animal interfaces intensify, understanding HEV dynamics in free-ranging species is essential for assessing zoonotic risks and implementing a strengthened One Health approach. This narrative review synthesizes and critically examines current evidence on HEV prevalence, molecular characteristics, and transmission pathways in wildlife, with particular emphasis on Europe and focused consideration of the Balkans as an epidemiologically heterogeneous and underrepresented subregion; examines associated public health implications; and highlights the importance of integrating wildlife into food safety and One Health surveillance frameworks. Existing knowledge gaps and limitations in wildlife surveillance are also discussed.

The wolf (Canis lupus) is a species of great conservation interest and has recently highlighted management challenges throughout Europe. Over the past 50years, the establishment of National Parks, forest cover changes as well as the expansion of wild ungulates seem to have played a crucial role in shaping the demographic trend of the wolf. We investigated prey-predator associations in the Cilento, Vallo di Diano e Alburni National Park (Southern Italy), one of the most ecologically significant areas contributing to the recovery of wolf in Southern Apennine. During the wolf bottleneck in the 70's, the protected area hosted only a few wolves and wild prey were scarce, while nowadays the wolf population has exceeded two hundred individuals, the wild boar number has increased significantly, and both roe deer and red deer are steadily rising following reintroduction actions. We aim to examine the relationship between the wolf population and its three primary wild prey considering the environmental changes that have occurred over the past few decades to underpin the current and future complex ecological relationships in Mediterranean forest ecosystems. Overall, our study lays the groundwork for future management strategies aimed at reconciling large carnivore conservation with sustainable forest use and human-wildlife coexistence.

Deer antler velvet (Cervus elaphus L.) is a traditional material in oriental medicine, extensively utilized for its anti-aging, antioxidant, and immune-boosting properties. Our prior research revealed that enzyme-derived deer antler velvet extract (YC-1101) stimulated the immune system by activating macrophages and augmenting splenocyte proliferation. In this study, we investigated the effect of YC-1101 on the proliferation, activation, and cytotoxicity of natural killer (NK) cells, emphasizing activation-receptor upregulation, cytokine secretion, and antitumor efficacy. Our findings demonstrated that YC-1101 treatment markedly enhanced NK cell proliferation in a dose-dependent and time-dependent manner by preserving mitochondrial function. NK cells expanded through YC-1101 treatment exhibited a significant increase in surface expression of activating NK receptors, NKG2D, and NKp44. Additionally, levels of immune-related cytokines like tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interferon-gamma, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor were substantially elevated in the YC-1101-treated group compared with control. Notably, NK cell activation induced by YC-1101 intensified cytotoxicity against various cancer cell lines, and combining YC-1101 with immune checkpoint inhibition synergistically enhanced antitumor activity. Collectively, our results indicate that integration of YC-1101 with expanded NK cells could be a promising approach to augment cancer treatment efficacy.

Precise and accurate information about population density, crucial for wildlife management, is difficult to obtain for elusive species living in dense forests or steep and inaccessible terrain. Using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), we developed a method for obtaining absolute population estimates of ungulates living in steep, rugged, and partly forested terrain. The UAVs were used to collect data from four different case study areas in two consecutive months in winter/early spring (before leaf growth) in Lærdal, Norway. The detections of red deer Cervus elaphus from UAV images were done using a double observer protocol, and hierarchal state–space models were fitted to the data using a Bayesian framework to obtain posterior distributions of absolute deer density. Results indicate that availability bias was negligible when deer can be searched for in multiple UAV images of the sites (sample plots) taken from different angles by a UAV at 60 m above ground level but detection probability in the images was significantly below one and must hence be accounted for. Although the credible intervals were rather wide, our results demonstrate that absolute red deer density estimates with quantifiable uncertainties can be produced using this method. Lower credible limits for the estimates indicate that densities in two of the study areas were consistently well above management target densities during the two consecutive months. The high spatial variation in deer densities (at various scales) in our study pose a major challenge, as large areas with a high number of sampling sites must be covered to model the spatial variation and obtain reliable and precise density estimates at a scale relevant for management. We nevertheless conclude that the method has potential for reliable spatiotemporal deer density estimation, given sufficient resources and field efforts.

As wolves recolonise their historical range across Europe, ungulates face predation once more – but in landscapes profoundly altered by human activity. This shift raises crucial questions about their capacity to express adaptive antipredator behaviours. Using a quasi‐experimental camera‐trap design, we examined diel activity responses of ungulates along the ongoing wolf recolonisation in the south‐eastern Alps. Red deer showed higher summer diurnality in sites with a longer history of wolf presence (7% increase over five years, on average) and progressively reduced nocturnality within sites as local wolf establishment advanced (5% decrease per year, on average), also heightening activity overlap with humans. This ‘diel shield effect' disappeared when human hunting occurred. Roe deer and Alpine chamois did not exhibit significant diel activity shifts in relation to wolves, though both species responded to human disturbance, with roe deer adjusting activity to hunting (18% less diurnal, on average) and chamois reducing diurnality in areas of intense outdoor use (up to 38% difference in diurnality between undisturbed and highly disturbed areas). Red deer, too, were less diurnal (up to 27% difference) and more nocturnal (up to 37% difference) in such highly disturbed areas, as well as near human settlements (up to 42% difference in diurnality between remote areas and villages). Our findings show that wolf recovery can induce detectable diel activity shifts in large herbivores over relatively short timescales, yet responses depend on species biology and behavioural plasticity. Importantly, human risk and disturbance can offset or override these behavioural adjustments, potentially altering the ecosystemic effects of returning large carnivores.

This paper reflects on my contributions to the fields of large herbivore ecology, conservation, and land management over the past 45 years. Although the work spans diverse ecosystems and species, a unifying thread is the pioneering research on cervids. Here, I trace my progression of thought, including shifts in focus, challenges encountered, and the influences that shape my trajectory from foundational studies on the behavioural ecology of native red deer in the Scottish Highlands to the pivotal investigations into the ecological impacts and niche shifts of invasive deer in Australia and lately the design of future deerscapes in New Zealand. I further examine how the empirical findings informed broader, pragmatic contributions to conservation policy, particularly my co-authored wolf reintroduction proposal and my influential ‘rewilding lite’ framework. By bridging empirical science with a nuanced understanding of socio-economic and political contexts, my work demonstrates a crucial interdisciplinary approach to addressing complex human–livestock–wildlife conflicts. I would like to think that I have contributed to translating granular ecological data into evidence-based solutions for managing ecosystems in a human-dominated world and hope to influence the path of next generation scientists, farmers, and wildlife managers.