This study investigated the relationships of language aptitude (LA) with working memory (WM) and their predictive roles in explaining third language (L3) comprehension. A sample of L1 Turkish-speaking English language teaching majors (N = 109) completed the LLAMA version 3 (Meara & Rogers, 2019), forward digit span, rotation, symmetry, and operation span tasks (Foster et al., 2015). L3 listening and reading comprehension measures were also administered to a subgroup of participants with L3 learning experience (N = 33). A factor analysis indicated verbal/phonological memory (digit span, operation span, and partially LLAMA D), visuospatial WM (symmetry and rotation span), and LLAMA (LLAMA B, E, F, partially D) factors. The L3 experience was not significantly correlated with any of the cognitive factors. The cognitive factors did not significantly contribute beyond L3 experience in explaining variance in L3 reading and listening comprehension. Findings were discussed regarding the verbal abilities shared by LA and WM and the potential sources of variation within L3 experience in young adult populations.

Unveiling the cognitive features of L2 Chinese reading: Machine learning reveals subskill-specific and general eye-movement patterns.

The Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) is widely used to assess English-as-a-second-language (ESL) students' metacognitive regulation of reading across three strategy dimensions (Global, Problem-Solving, Support), yet this three-factor structure has rarely undergone confirmatory validation. This study introduces HiLoLev, a theory-driven two-factor measurement reconceptualisation that distinguishes higher-level integrative/monitoring strategies from lower-level decoding/support strategies. Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on data from 554 Swedish upper-secondary ESL students, legacy three-factor specifications (oblique, higher-order) were contrasted with the proposed theory-driven HiLoLev model based on SORS items. The original structures showed poor fit with high interfactor correlations and substantial cross-loadings; by contrast, an 11-item HiLoLev model fit well (RMSEA = 0.051, SRMR = 0.045) and offered clearer interpretability. While the full SORS remains pedagogically useful, its subscales should not be assumed to represent stable latent constructs for inferential analyses. For research applications (e.g., regression models, mediation analyses, or group comparisons), confirm the structure in-sample via CFA or consider using the 11-item HiLoLev model as a compact, cognitively grounded latent specification of SORS items.

Developmental dyslexia (DD) is associated with multiple cognitive deficits. This study examined whether digital training of specific cognitive components is feasible and effective, whether parental involvement increases training intensity, and whether a multi-component intervention yields specific and cumulative benefits for reading fluency, spelling, and reading comprehension. We developed a multi-component digital intervention targeting visual-attentional (VA), auditory-phonological (AP), and cross-modal processes. In a pre-registered multiple single-case (within-subject) intervention study (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT04028310), 144 children with DD aged 8 to 13 years participated. The first two training components (VA vs. AP) were counterbalanced across participants. Each training phase lasted 2 months, with home-based practice 5 days per week for 15 min per session under parental supervision. Before and after the digital intervention phases, children received conventional remediation once per week for 2 months, serving as a within-subject baseline. Training effects were component-specific: VA training led to greater improvements in visual-attentional skills than AP training, whereas AP training yielded greater gains in phoneme awareness than VA training. Across the full three-stage program, cumulative improvements were observed in reading fluency, spelling, and reading comprehension that exceeded gains during conventional remediation alone. Starting with VA training resulted in larger reading fluency gains than starting with AP training. These findings provide a proof of concept that a scalable, home-based, multi-component digital intervention can induce specific cognitive improvements and cumulative gains in reading and spelling skills in children with DD, while remaining feasible for large-scale implementation.

Evaluative processing of emotional and moral content during discourse comprehension: Insights from event-related brain potentials.

This study examines the complexity of reading comprehension passages in the English component of the 2025 National High School Graduation Exam. It estimates the CEFR-aligned difficulty levels of passages from the 2020-2025 examinations using quantitative measures and qualitative CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) descriptors and compares them against the B1 benchmark specified in the national curriculum. The findings suggest a substantial increase in difficulty over time, with passages in the 2025 examination exhibiting complexity characteristics associated with C1-C2 levels in terms of lexical and readability demands. These levels considerably exceed the B1 requirement outlined in the 2018 General Education Curriculum. The results suggest a growing mismatch between curriculum standards and examination demands, raising concerns about validity, equity, and fairness. The study contributes to international discussions on high-stakes language testing by highlighting the importance of curriculum-assessment alignment and transparent test design in promoting pedagogical coherence and educational justice.

ABSTRACT This study aims to comparatively investigate the predictors of reading comprehension in children on the autism spectrum (AS) and neurotypical (NT) children within the framework of the Simple View of Reading (SVR). The study sample comprised 88 children in total, including 44 children on the AS (8 girls, 36 boys; M = 8.60, SD = 1.07) and 44 NT children (23 girls, 21 boys; M = 7.53, SD = 0.48). During the data collection process, the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS), the Test of Nonverbal Intelligence–3 (TONI-3), the Turkish School-Age Language Development Test (TSALD), and the Literacy Assessment Battery (LAB) were administered. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted with reading comprehension as the outcome variable, and decoding and language comprehension as predictor variables. The findings revealed that decoding accounted for 72.8% of the variance in reading comprehension among children on the AS. When listening comprehension was added, the explained variance increased by 5.7% (total = 78.5%). In the NT group, decoding significantly predicted reading comprehension (65.8%), whereas language comprehension did not contribute significantly. Decoding was identified as a significant predictor of reading comprehension in both children on the AS and NT peers.

The objective of this study was to analyze the influence of psychodidactic and family factors in primary education in the Dominican Republic, focusing on inclusive learning with attention to diversity in the “Ángel Rosario Marte” and “Eugenio María de Hostos” schools in the municipality of Maimón, Monseñor Nouel province. A mixed-methods approach was adopted, with a non-experimental, cross-sectional, and correlational design. The sample consisted of 446 families and 48 teachers from two public educational centers in the municipality of Maimón. Data collection was carried out through structured Likert-type questionnaires, validated through expert judgment and a pilot test. Statistical analysis included descriptive procedures and inferential tests (Pearson’s Chi-square, Fisher’s exact test, and measures of association), using IBM SPSS software version 25. The results showed significant associations between academic performance and family support in schoolwork, early language development, alcohol consumption during pregnancy, reading comprehension, and the sociocultural conditions of the home. Relevant relationships were also identified between the use of didactic resources, inclusive pedagogical practices, and attention to low academic performance. The findings confirm that academic performance is a multifactorial phenomenon that emerges from the interaction between the family environment and teacher mediation. It is concluded that strengthening family–school co-responsibility, promoting early development, avoiding alcohol consumption during pregnancy, and consolidating inclusive pedagogical practices are key strategies for improving the quality and equity of learning in diverse contexts.

Children of parents with psychopathology generally perform less well in school than their peers. Parental symptoms might not, however, account for their lower achievement, as other familial factors might contribute. To examine the role of parental symptoms, we analyse data from 9,000 families in the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Study (MoBa). Parents reported their symptoms of anxiety, depression, ADHD, eating disorders, and alcohol use disorder during pregnancy and during their child's childhood. Children in 5th grade (aged 10) completed nationally-standardised tests of mathematics, reading comprehension, and English (as an additional language). Comparing children who are cousins (children-of-siblings design), we controlled for unmeasured factors shared among family members that confound the relationship between parental mental health and children's academic achievement. We found small associations between greater parental symptoms and lower scores in reading and mathematics (- 0.060 ≤ β ≤ -0.013). However, these associations were no longer significant when comparing cousins whose parents differ in mental health. Results suggest that parental symptoms do not exert a direct, clinically meaningful effect on children's academic achievement. Although non-significant, associations with parental symptoms measured close to the child's academic test are less attenuated than those measured during pregnancy. Notably, comparison between the overall MoBa sample and the children-of-siblings samples suggests ascertainment differences that hinder strong generalisations. Our findings underscore the importance of quasi-experimental family designs in identifying modifiable targets in intergenerational health and education research. Supporting parental mental health is crucial but its direct effect on children's achievement may be smaller than often thought.

Teachers' characteristics have been linked to their students' reading development. However, previous research has primarily focused on the early phase of reading development in Western societies. We examined the associations between teachers' knowledge of dyslexia, perceived ability to teach reading and warmth during teaching and Chinese students' reading development across primary grades. Fifty-four Chinese language arts teachers and their 1517 students in Grades 1 to 5 (mean age = 8.63 years, SD = 1.39, 51.2% female) participated in the study. The teachers completed a questionnaire assessing their knowledge of dyslexia, perceived ability to teach reading and warmth during teaching. The students were assessed on their reading skills (sentence reading efficiency and passage reading comprehension) in the middle and at the end of the school year. Multilevel modelling showed that teachers' perceived ability to teach reading was associated with their students' reading gains over time after controlling for other teacher variables and students' age, gender and earlier reading skills. In contrast, their knowledge of dyslexia was not significantly associated with students' reading skills, either for the whole class or for lower-performing students. These findings suggest that teachers' self-efficacy (operationalized as perceived teaching ability) may play a role in Chinese students' reading development.

Eye Movement Measures of Word-Level and Text-Level Fluency in Disordered Reading: A Comparison of Schizophrenia and Dyslexia.

Many children with oral language difficulties also experience challenges with word reading, as evidenced in the high comorbidity rate between developmental language disorders and dyslexia. The current study investigated a sample of students (n = 357) with language and literacy difficulties classified into latent classes based on pre-intervention performance on word reading and listening comprehension measures. Specifically, this study sought to determine the extent to which latent classes responded to an evidence-based, narrative language program at immediate post-test and a five-month follow-up time point, and whether performance varied as a function of class membership. Findings revealed that students in all latent profiles showed statistically significant improvements in narrative language at post-test, a primary target of the intervention. However, intervention effects varied at a five-month follow-up time point, with students with the greatest listening comprehension and word reading difficulties showing the most notable gains. Instructional response also varied according to performance on a narrative writing measure. These findings suggest that assessing initial performance on key variables may be able to help educators predict student response and adapt intervention plans to more effectively meet individual needs.

Learning to read academic texts requires not only understanding the content, but also the ability to process information in depth and awareness in controlling the thought process while reading. However, many students still experience difficulties in writing accurate summaries and demonstrating adequate metacognitive awareness. Therefore, this study aims to examine the effect of Metacognitive Reading Strategy Instruction (MRSI) on summary writing ability and metacognitive awareness in reading, both partially and simultaneously. This study used a quantitative approach with a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest control group design. The research sample consisted of two groups of 35 students each. The experimental group was given treatment with MRSI through four stages, namely: planning, monitoring, strategic processing, and evaluation. Meanwhile, the control group used conventional learning. Data were collected through a summary writing test and a metacognitive awareness questionnaire, then analyzed using Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) and a follow-up test (ANCOVA). The results showed that MRSI had a significant effect on summary writing ability and metacognitive awareness in reading, both simultaneously and partially (p < 0.05). Descriptively, the average summary writing ability score in the experimental group increased higher than the control group (86.23 vs. 78.11), as did metacognitive awareness (85.71 vs. 77.17). Furthermore, the effect size showed a large category, indicating that MRSI was effective in improving both variables. These findings confirm that metacognitive strategy-based learning not only improves cognitive learning outcomes but also awareness of thinking processes in reading.

Vocabulary and knowledge are important to literacy development. This paper investigates aspects of each that contribute to learning new words in the early elementary classroom and to reading comprehension. First- and second-grade students (N = 137) partook in classroom vocabulary instruction and completed measures of language skills. Second-grade students (n = 71) also completed measures of academic knowledge and reading. Multilevel modeling showed that vocabulary and grammatical awareness each contributed unique variance to word learning, with grammatical awareness more strongly predictive for first- than for second-grade students. Academic knowledge explained unique variance in second-grade students’ word learning and comprehension. Prior language and academic knowledge facilitate classroom word learning, and general academic knowledge contributes to general reading comprehension as early as second grade. Findings underscore the need for further explication of the roles and interactions of different sources of language and knowledge in theories of literacy development.

ABSTRACT Background The ongoing work of educators at the national and international levels aims to equip students with high-level knowledge, and the studies have continued increasingly since the middle of the last century. Studies in the field show that it is possible to improve student achievement by employing hands-on activities. Purpose The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of an online guided inquiry approach to improve sixth-grade students’ science course achievements, retention, scientific process skills and reading comprehension skills. Sample For this purpose, the study group of the research consisted of 60 students enrolled in the sixth-grade of a public school with a middle-upper socioeconomic level. The distribution of the students between the experiment and control groups was determined to be 30 students per group. Design and method In this study, a static group comparison design was used in accordance with the determined purpose. While the achievement test, scientific process skills test and reading comprehension skills test were applied to the experiment group in which the online guided inquiry approach was carried out and the control group in which the online traditional method was carried out, the achievement test was applied again as a retention test 6 weeks after the interaction. Results The results of the analyses demonstrated that there was no pre-existing difference between the experimental and control groups. In order to determine the effect of teaching methods on science course achievements, retention, scientific process skills and reading comprehension skills, a repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed for achievement and retention variables, and analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed for scientific process skills and reading comprehension skills. Conclusion As a result, it can be said that the online guided inquiry approach has a positive effect on students’ science course achievement, retention, scientific process skills and reading comprehension skills. In addition, this research may have some implications for curriculum developers, researchers and science teachers in terms of the effectiveness of such learning environments through the online guided inquiry approach.

Reading fluency is a key component of literacy development and an important indicator of reading comprehension and academic achievement. However, traditional fluency assessment methods are often time-consuming, difficult to scale, and dependent on subjective evaluation procedures, limiting their use in large-scale educational contexts. This study proposes a multilayer educational framework for automated reading fluency assessment that integrates audio processing, fluency indicator computation, and interpretive modeling within a structured assessment system. The proposed framework conceptualizes fluency assessment as a multilayer process that transforms oral reading audio into interpretable educational outputs through successive stages of acoustic processing, indicator computation, interpretive modeling, and feedback generation. This architecture allows fluency to be evaluated as a multidimensional construct, including reading rate, temporal continuity, pausing patterns, and rhythmic features, rather than relying on single metrics such as words per minute. The system is designed to support classroom assessment, large-scale literacy evaluation, and formative feedback processes by providing scalable, consistent, and interpretable fluency assessments. The study outlines the conceptual foundations of the framework, describes its system architecture, and discusses its potential applications in educational assessment and literacy development monitoring. The findings suggest that multilayer automated assessment systems can contribute to more efficient, scalable, and pedagogically meaningful approaches to reading fluency assessment, supporting data-informed decision-making in educational contexts.

This study examined the role of reading anxiety (RA) in 3rd grade children's reading performance, alongside recognized cognitive predictors, such as phonological awareness (PA), naming speed (RAN), and verbal working memory (VWM). To enable this investigation, the 20-item version of the Reading Anxiety Scale (RAS-20) was first adapted for European Portuguese, as no validated instrument was previously available. Participants included 109 Portuguese children (61 girls and 48 boys; MTotal = 8.96 years, SD = .32) assessed on non-verbal reasoning, trait anxiety, RA, reading comprehension, text reading fluency, PA, RAN, and VWM. To examine the factor structure of the adapted scale, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the original model was first conducted showing inadequate fit. This was followed by exploratory factor analyses (EFA) and a subsequent CFA of the refined model. The final 16-item solution demonstrated acceptable fit, supporting a three-factor structure and providing evidence of reliability and preliminary support for construct validity for the Portuguese version (RAS-P). Hierarchical regression analyses showed that RA contributed significantly to reading comprehension and text reading fluency when considered independently. However, when cognitive predictors were included in the models, the contribution of RA decreased but remained significant for reading comprehension, whereas it became non-significant for text reading fluency. These findings suggest that RA plays a complementary, but not primary, role in reading performance. This study contributes to a more integrated understanding of emotional and cognitive influences on reading performance and provides a validated tool for assessing RA in European Portuguese children.

ABSTRACT A community-centered, occupation-based program was implemented among children and families in the Bronx to enhance reading engagement, children’s perceptions of reading, and caregiver confidence in supporting literacy routines. Strong evidence shows that parent – child shared reading improves children’s reading participation and early literacy development. Moderate evidence also supports occupation- and activity-based literacy interventions for improving children’s reading attitudes and participation. Based on this evidence, the reading program fostered an environment that engaged both peers and parents in meaningful reading-based group activities. A single-group pretest – posttest design was used to measure change, with six children and four caregivers completing pre/post surveys. Caregiver surveys included a ten-item, five-point Likert-type scale and qualitative questions about home routines. Child surveys used a ten-item, three-point Likert-type scale assessing reading self-perception, reading habits, and reading strategy use. Caregivers demonstrated high baseline attitudes toward reading, yet improvements were observed in knowledge of reading strategies and beliefs about the social value of literacy. Children showed increased enjoyment of reading, particularly endorsing that reading is fun (from 67% to 100% “Yes”), along with gains in reading aloud and functional reading. Several items remained stable, and minor decreases in a few child items likely reflected normal variability. These findings support occupation-based, community-delivered literacy programs in underserved settings. Embedding reading into play, routines, and meaningful activities may help occupational therapists promote literacy through motivation and participation. Research using larger samples and longer program duration is needed.

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) play a central role in assessing the benefits and harms of interventions. Incomplete reporting in RCT publications can compromise the verifiability and usefulness of RCTs. SPIRIT and CONSORT reporting guidelines aim to improve the completeness of RCT protocols and results publications, respectively. However, many RCTs are not reported completely. Checking manuscripts automatically could help authors improve the completeness of reports prior to publication. We previously annotated SPIRIT-CONSORT-TM, a corpus of 200 articles (comprising 100 protocol-results publication pairs) using 83 checklist items drawn from SPIRIT 2013 and CONSORT 2010. We also trained machine learning models to automatically assess reporting at the item level. Each checklist item can include multiple constituent elements (i.e., specific details required for that item), and an item might be considered fully reported when all of its elements are present. However, prior work does not explicitly capture or evaluate reporting at the element level. To address this gap, we extended SPIRIT-CONSORT-TM by incorporating element-level annotations and using them to assess reporting completeness (SPIRIT-CONSORT-ELM). We formulated element-level assessment as a machine reading comprehension task, operationalized through 119 questions, where each question targets a specific reporting element within a checklist item. Using the 200 articles included in SPIRIT-CONSORT-TM, two annotators independently answered 119 questions for 50 articles (25 protocol-results pairs) and resolved any discrepancies through discussion; the remaining 150 articles (75 protocol-results pairs) were assessed by a single annotator. We then developed an automated pipeline for element-level assessment using SPIRIT-CONSORT-ELM. The pipeline first applies a PubMedBERT-based model to identify sentences containing item-level reporting information, then it uses a generative large language model (LLM; GPT-5) with chain-of-thought reasoning to answer element-level questions based on the retrieved evidence. Agreement between the two annotators was high (Gwet's AC1: 0.782) and our pipeline achieved high accuracy in identifying element-level reporting evidence (F1: 0.822, Gwet's AC1: 0.796). Ablation studies indicate that chain-of-thought reasoning and the inclusion of illustrative in-context examples modestly improve LLM performance on the machine reading comprehension task. SPIRIT-CONSORT-ELM provides a benchmark for evaluating reporting guideline completeness at the element level, enabling assessment of RCT transparency beyond the simple presence or absence of checklist items and is publicly available at https://osf.io/kznx4/ . The automated pipeline establishes a robust baseline for assessing RCT reporting and demonstrates potential as a practical aid for authors, reviewers, and editors to identify and address gaps in completeness and transparency of RCT reports.

Literature plays a central role in many L2 curricula around the world, offering rich linguistic input, fostering interpretive and aesthetic engagement, and supporting deeper cultural and critical understanding. This study investigated how reading motivation, self-reported use of reading strategies, tolerance of ambiguity, attitudes toward literature, and overall English proficiency jointly related to upper-secondary school learners’ literary competence in an EFL context. A sample of 264 Norwegian VG1 students completed a literary assessment based on a short story and a battery of affective, cognitive, and experiential measures. Using a moderated mediation framework, the data analysis revealed that reading motivation exerted a positive direct effect on participants’ assessment scores (i.e., literary competence, measured as a performance outcome). However, reading motivation was negatively associated with self-reported reading strategy use, producing a small suppressor effect, and the magnitude of both pathways depended on overall proficiency: the positive direct effect weakened at higher proficiency, while the negative indirect effect intensified. Tolerance of ambiguity, literary attitudes, and extramural literary engagement also contributed uniquely to literary competence. These findings suggest a developmental shift from conscious, effortful reading strategy use toward more tacit processing with respect to specifically literary reading as proficiency increases, underscoring the need for differentiated pedagogical approaches.