Policy Discourse Research Articles

Testing the validity of feminization U-shape hypothesis for female labor force participation and economic development in Pakistan: a reexamination

Purpose The participation of females in economic activity remains a challenge, and received a lot of attention for a better labor policy discourse. The empirical research focused widely on the relationship between female labor force participation (FLFP) and economic development, called the feminization U-shape hypothesis. However, the linear/nonlinear relationship has been questioned due to empirical and methodological anomalies. Hence, this study aims to extend the previous work by reexamining this relationship in Pakistan. Design/methodology/approach The annual data from 1980 to 2021, the unit root tests augmented Dickey–Fuller and Phillips and Perron, the conventional autoregressive distributed lag bound test approach by including the quadratic-term of GDP per capita and the novel Sasabuchi–Lind–Mehlum (SLM) U test (2010) used for empirical estimation. Findings The findings revealed the prospects of a long-run nonlinear association between FLFP and economic development in Pakistan. However, an inverse U-shape exists between the female labor force participation rate (FLFPR) and GDP per capita, predicting that FLFP may decline in the future. Research limitations/implications The traditional feminization U-shape hypothesis has little empirical support in the case of Pakistan. Therefore, the Government of Pakistan should enhance the enabling environment for females through the provision of better job opportunities, technical skills, on-the-job training and social security benefits during all phases of economic development. Originality/value The conventional approach of testing U-shape is insufficient. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, therefore, this study incorporated a wider data set in a time series that is less evident, an advanced methodology SLM U test (2010), to validate the feminization U-shape hypothesis in Pakistan for the first time.

Protecting digital rights of India: planning for succession at Internet Freedom Foundation (IFF)

Learning outcomes The learning objectives of this case study are based on Bloom’s taxonomy. Upon completion of the case study discussion and exercises, successful students will be able to design a leadership transition and succession plan for non-profit organisations; identify and evaluate critical skills and competencies required in leadership positions; and frame expectations and responsibilities for new and departing executives. Case overview/synopsis Apar Gupta co-founded Internet Freedom Foundation (IFF), a digital rights organisation born out of SaveTheInternet – Net Neutrality movement of 2015, credited for urging the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India to uphold net neutrality in India. And ban zero-cost internet services that promoted data discrimination in the country. After working on and winning the net neutrality movement, Gupta identified many areas in technology where democratic rights had not been identified or were yet to be clearly defined (like in the case of net neutrality). There was also a service gap between the existing internet volunteer groups and digital rights organisations, which could IFF fill. This was to provide objective clarity, stakeholder identification, handle policy discussions and, most importantly, arrange resources to support movements over the long term. This prompted him to co-found IFF in 2017, which he later joined as a full-time executive director in 2018. IFF worked at the intersection of technology, democratic rights and government policies and was comparable to some global organisations, such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation in the USA and the Open Rights Group in the UK. Still, none existed in India at the time. After four years as a full-time executive director in 2022, he was convinced that it was finally time for him to act on the pre-defined strategic departure plan and work towards succession for the executive director position. While there were visible gaps in the system, Gupta’s leadership design and plans had helped IFF overcome existential challenges in the past. Also, while digital rights were still at a nascent stage in emerging economies, under Gupta’s leadership, IFF had delivered unmatched value to its beneficiaries in the world’s biggest digital consumer market. However, constant changes in regulations and continuing financial constraints made him nervous about the outcomes of the succession and the overall sustainability of IFF. Gupta wanted to ensure that this phased transition from executive director after two years and then trustee manager after the next four years are carefully communicated to reduce the likelihood of attrition and loss of trust. Being the co-founder and the first and only executive director IFF had seen, the organisation would also require significant skill and competency mapping to identify the new executive leadership. But with no clear internal successor in sight, the non-profit trust would also need a successor who not only was competent but also would share a passion for the type of work done by IFF, its unique delivery mode, and also would openly inherit its position in society. The other alternative strategic routes present were to look for dual leadership or interim leadership, but then there could be concerns about Gupta’s influence overshadowing any such alternative. In the case scenario, IFF is planning for succession while navigating the organisation through financial constraints and constant regulatory changes to ensure long- and short-term sustainability. Complexity academic level The case study has been written to gain insights into departure-defined successive planning in non-profit organisations. The case study can also be used to gain insights into innovative start-ups and innovative non-profit start-ups, as digital rights are still at nascent stages in emerging markets. The case study will be valuable for courses such as human resource management, strategic human resource management, social entrepreneurial leadership, leadership development, start-up environment, innovation and entrepreneurship, public policy, development studies, cyber security and information technology. The case study also allows students and young professionals to take the perspective of an innovative start-up founder and design a departure-defined succession plan. The case study can also be useful for senior students wanting to undertake an entrepreneurial career by starting or joining a non-profit organisation. While the case study is suitable for postgraduate- and executive-level courses, it can also be used for conducting entrepreneurial workshops and skill training. Supplementary materials Teaching notes are available for educators only. Subject code CSS 3: Entrepreneurship.

Discussion of federal policies affecting broadband expansion and telehealth in Appalachia

Background There have been 188 rural hospital closures in the United States since 2010 with approximately 20% of these in Appalachia. Telehealth has become a way that nurses can reach rural patients who might not otherwise receive health care. Objectives The purpose of this paper is to (1) outline the federal policies enacted during COVID-19 for broadband expansion; and (2) suggest how advanced practice nursing care might be affected by broadband expansion and telehealth in the region. Methods A search of PubMed was conducted in January 2023, using the search words, “policy”, “telehealth”, “broadband”, and “Appalachia”. Findings New laws appropriated funds to expand broadband infrastructure that made it possible for telehealth to be used by nurses to deliver health care to rural patients. Conclusion This discussion paper found that broadband legislation was instrumental in expanding telecommunications and telehealth by NPs. There is a great need for broadband to continue to expand and for trained nurses to provide care via telehealth.

Conflict mitigation as a means of climate change adaptation: Lessons for policy and development practice

In this article, we examine the ways conflict can drive climate change vulnerability and, in turn, argue that conflict mitigation can act as a means of climate change adaptation. We identify three key ways in which conflict mitigation enhances adaptation opportunities: (a) addressing conflict dynamics increases opportunities to address climate risks; (b) grounded analysis of conflict dynamics often reveals high-value opportunities for climate change-oriented programs as well as potential maladaptations to be avoided; and (c) conflict mitigation interventions which rely heavily on governance can be leveraged in climate change adaptation efforts. This has multiple implications for global climate change policy, especially when one considers key climate security outcomes emanating from international policy discussions such as COP 28. We conclude this article by identifying three under-examined—and practical—lines of inquiry that would address key knowledge gaps in how to fortify climate resilience in conflict-affected regions.

Men’s Violence against Women as Portrayed in the Swedish Media: The Construction of Victimhood and the Role of the Perpetrator

Men’s violence against women is an international problem and while global and national initiatives have been created to better the criminalization process, the influence of news reporting on violence against women has not been successfully addressed in such policy. The aim of this study is to contribute to understanding how media frames violence against women in the Swedish context, which is both highly protective of crime reporting and where violence against women is a central policy and public discussion issue. A mixed methods approach was used in the analysis of 295 digital news articles that were published by four media outlets (Aftonbladet, Expressen, Svenska Dagbladet and Dagens Nyheter) within the period January 1st, 2019–December 31st, 2021. The study found that digital news articles first frame the issue of violence against women as episodic, but later transform into a thematic frame when follow-up articles were written on a given case. The study found a construction of victimhood by Swedish news media that allowed for two victim personas to be identified: the ideal victim and the ideal minority victim. In connection with the portrayal of the victim, the study also identified two different portrayals of the perpetrator: the ideal foreign perpetrator and the Swedish perpetrator. Both the description of the victim and perpetrator allowed for insights to be made regarding the role of racialization in news reporting and how this effects the framing of social issues. Finally, the study presented a set of news values that were most frequently found in articles that reveal several news factors of violence against women that contribute to the topic being seen as newsworthy.

Commissioned Book Review: Nick Whittaker, Geopolitics and Identity in British Foreign Policy Discourse. The Island Race

Commissioned Book Review: Nick Whittaker, <i>Geopolitics and Identity in British Foreign Policy Discourse. The Island Race</i>

Health Care Utilization During the First 5½ Years of Authorized Service by Transgender U.S. Service Members (2016-2021).

Purpose: This study examined the utilization of gender-affirming health care by active-duty service members during the initial 5½ years that transgender and gender-diverse (TGD) individuals were authorized to serve in the U.S. military. The aim of this study was to inform policy discussions regarding inclusion of TGD individuals in the military. Methods: We conducted a retrospective cohort study using administrative health care data from the Military Data Repository (MDR). We assessed the association of demographic factors with the utilization of gender-affirming medical and surgical care. We calculated the incidence rate of initial TGD-related encounters and new prescriptions for gender-affirming hormones among Defense Department Service members between July 2016 and December 2021. Results: We identified 2481 service members with an initial health care encounter with an associated TGD-related diagnosis. More than half (53%) of these service members started gender-affirming hormones, and 14% underwent gender-affirming surgery. Mastectomies and hysterectomies accounted for more than 70% of surgeries. Service members made 3.22 initial encounters with a TGD-related diagnosis per 10,000 service members per year, with an overrepresentation of service members who were designated female in the MDR (8.62), junior enlisted (4.98), and young (4.64). Individuals designated female in the MRD comprised 17% of all service members but accounted for 46% of initial encounters, 51% of new prescriptions, and 73% of surgeries. Conclusion: The study revealed a higher-than-expected number of service members seeking gender-affirming care, particularly among service members designated female in the MDR. Military Health System clinicians provided most of this care, which may mitigate the cost of delivering this essential medical care.

A Postcolonial Marxist Critique of the River‐as‐Subject: Situating the Atrato River in Its Development Aporias

AbstractIn 2016, Colombia's Constitutional Court declared the Atrato River a subject with rights and named the river's environmental stewards. This article traces how various actors co‐produced the ruling and critically engages scholarly calls to theorise a river‐as‐subject ontology. Centring postcolonial Marxist perspectives, the piece illuminates how power operates through the Rights of Nature discourse and theorises that the river‐as‐subject builds on and creates racialised development aporias: non‐passages beyond the hegemony of the state, capital, and development discourse and double‐binds for environmental justice struggles. Unpacking how the plaintiffs built the case and the river stewards navigated the ruling's first five years, I show that mining‐induced river degradation unfolds through (i) the fraught promise of justice in the Colombian Constitution, (ii) the naturalisation of collective legal personhood as “bio‐cultural rights”, and (iii) the inclusionary exclusion of river stewards from policy discussions about large‐scale mining enclosures and alluvial gold exploitation.

Bridges over troubled waters: Climate clubs, alliances, and partnerships as safeguards for effective international cooperation?

AbstractDriven by the motivation to raise the ambition level of climate action and to foster the transformation of economies, current climate policy discourse revolves around ways to improve cooperation between industrialized countries and emerging economies. We identify three broad types of initiatives—multilateral-cross sectoral, multilateral, sector specific, and climate and development partnerships—and assess them for potentials to deliver on such objectives with a specific focus on industry transformation. This paper provides new reflections on the institutionalization of international climate cooperation. Specifically, we demonstrate the urgent need to understand what values, norms, and underlying principles drive a cooperation in order to draw conclusions on how to best institutionalize climate cooperation rules.in-use. We conclude that an overemphasis on a CO2 price and on carbon border adjustment mechanisms, such as in the context of the initial proposals for a cross-sectoral climate club envisaged by G7 countries, would have contributed to a further polarization of the international landscape. We find, however, that multilateral, sectoral alliances play an important role for international goal setting and the convergence on standards, metrics, and benchmarks. Based on our analysis, we recommend strengthening multilateral, sector-specific partnerships. These can be focused on sectoral topics as a connector between countries, allowing for a strategically-aligned, increasingly deep collaboration. However, for any initiative to succeed, processes of international institutionalization will be needed in order to agree on rules for implementation based on aligned interests and equity. Building such institutions may well serve as a steppingstone toward more durable cooperation structures between developed economies and emerging economies. In sum, no existing cooperation approach is perfect, but three actions may be taken to move the agenda forward: First, reform of the carbon border adjustment mechanism and removing it from the center of climate club discussions, second, coupling sectoral alliances with climate and development partnerships, and three, designing them in a way to address fears of political influence seeking and superimposition of global north agendas on the global south.

From pixels to production: the impact of digital finance on the industrial fabric of rural China

PurposeThe aim of this study is to discern the role of digital finance in driving rural industrial integration and revitalization. Specifically, it intends to shed light on how the deep development of digital finance can contribute to the optimization and transformation of the rural industrial structure. The research further explores the particular effects of this financial transformation in the central and western regions of China.Design/methodology/approachThis research studies the influence of digital finance on rural industrial integration across 30 Chinese provinces from 2011 to 2020. Utilizing the entropy weight method, a comprehensive evaluation index system is established to gauge the level of rural industrial integration. A two-way fixed effects model, intermediary effect model, and threshold effect model are employed to decipher the relationship between digital finance and rural industrial integration.FindingsFindings reveal a positive relationship between digital finance and rural industrial integration. A single threshold feature was identified: beyond a traditional finance development level, the marginal effect of digital finance on rural industrial integration increases. These effects are more noticeable in central and western regions.Originality/valueEmpirical outcomes contribute to policy discourse on rural digital finance, assisting policymakers in crafting effective strategies. Understanding the threshold of traditional finance development provides a new perspective on the potential of digital finance to drive rural industrial integration.

Aboriginal plant foods policy in Australia: a critical discourse analysis

ABSTRACT The Australian continent has over 6500 edible endemic plant species, fourteen of which have been certified for commercial consumption. This paper seeks to critically analyze select Australian Commonwealth Government policy relating to these Aboriginal plant foods. The aim is to purposefully examine the positioning of non-Indigenous people in Aboriginal plant foods policy discourse and reveal tacit settler colonial power relations. This is in response to a call to action from Indigenous scholars to examine how settler colonialism manifests in regulatory mechanisms, such as government policy. This paper offers a theoretically informed critical discourse analysis methodology for examining Australian Commonwealth Government policy relating to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander affairs. Analysis comprised an explanation of the socio-political context of Aboriginal policymaking in Australia, textual analysis of policy texts related to Aboriginal plant foods and an interpretation of discourse practice to reveal how policy discourse tacitly promotes ideological agendas. This analysis revealed that Australian Commonwealth Government Aboriginal plant foods policy is framed according to settler terms and upholds neoliberal interests. Considerable rethinking is required about how power is exercised in Commonwealth Government policy relating to Aboriginal plant foods to ensure it does not replicate and perpetuate unjust settler colonial power relations.

Enhancing Irrigated Land Use Efficiency in Southern Kazakhstan's Agricultural Sectors

This study aims to improve the efficiency of irrigated land use in the agricultural sectors of southern Kazakhstan. This region is known for its significant contribution to the nation's agricultural output. Recognizing the challenges posed by suboptimal water management practices and the increasing effects of climate change, this research takes a multidisciplinary approach to propose sustainable agricultural practices. We conducted an empirical analysis over a three-year period, comparing current irrigation techniques with the implementation of innovative water-saving technologies. The study also evaluates the socio-economic impacts of improved irrigation practices on local farming communities. Preliminary results indicate that the use of precision irrigation systems can greatly reduce water wastage and increase crop yields. Additionally, the research highlights the crucial role of farmer education and cooperative management structures in achieving sustainable water use. By combining technological advancements with community-based management, this study provides a scalable model for optimizing irrigated land use that could be replicated throughout Central Asia. The findings aim to contribute to policy discussions on sustainable agriculture in arid regions, emphasizing the importance of tailored solutions that address both environmental and socio-economic factors.

The influence of economic policies on social environments and mental health.

Despite increased advocacy and investments in mental health systems globally, there has been limited progress in reducing mental disorder prevalence. In this paper, we argue that meaningful advancements in population mental health necessitate addressing the fundamental sources of shared distress. Using a systems perspective, economic structures and policies are identified as the potential cause of causes of mental ill-health. Neoliberal ideologies, prioritizing economic optimization and continuous growth, contribute to the promotion of individualism, job insecurity, increasing demands on workers, parental stress, social disconnection and a broad range of manifestations well-recognized to erode mental health. We emphasize the need for mental health researchers and advocates to increasingly engage with the economic policy discourse to draw attention to mental health and well-being implications. We call for a shift towards a well-being economy to better align commercial interests with collective well-being and social prosperity. The involvement of individuals with lived mental ill-health experiences, practitioners and researchers is needed to mobilize communities for change and influence economic policies to safeguard well-being. Additionally, we call for the establishment of national mental wealth observatories to inform coordinated health, social and economic policies and realize the transition to a more sustainable well-being economy that offers promise for progress on population mental health outcomes.

Towards a circular economy and just transition to net-zero in rural Scotland: Resident perspectives on policy and practice

The circular economy and just transition are key dimensions of the sustainability challenges of the 21st century. These concepts are ambiguous and meanings differ among actors, sectors and contexts. This paper examines the circular economy and a just transition to net-zero in the Scottish context, where both are prominent in national policy discourses and central to the work of Zero Waste Scotland. It is based on qualitative research, co-designed with Zero Waste Scotland, to explore how rural residents in Scotland understand the circular economy and just transition, in their everyday lives and communities. This is an under-researched area and our findings add new knowledge useful for implementing sustainability policies in a rural context. Focus groups were carried out in three rural areas, engaging with a range of residents in a deliberative setting. The findings support the need for a more collaborative, whole systems approach that moves beyond siloed thinking and which focuses on local capacity and knowledge building for transitions to more sustainable rural communities.

Price pass‐through in the U.S. beef industry: Implications of feedlot capacity utilization

AbstractTransmission of prices, profits, and more generally, economic well‐being across vertically connected sectors of agriculture have a long history of interest—arguably of most current interest in meat and livestock markets. Disruptions in live animal harvesting, especially from COVID‐19, have corresponded with substantial market adjustment and hence elevated interest in inner‐industry relationships, including from policymakers. This paper's main contribution is assessing how price changes in the U.S. feedlot industry manifest in feeder cattle markets. We use Ricardian rent theory as a framework to quantify price transmission by testing how price fluctuations actually pass through the supply chain versus theoretical expectations. We posit that the capacity utilization of feedlots changes because of market shocks, impacting price relationships. In the empirical model, when feedlot capacity utilization rates are below the 65% critical point, we find that both fed to feeder cattle and corn to feeder cattle pass‐through rates are higher than hypothesized. When feedlot capacity utilization rates are high (&gt;65%), estimated pass‐through rates are lower and not statistically different from Ricardian rent theory. Understanding how prices pass through in the beef industry can help inform policy discussions about beef market competitiveness and promote efficient resource allocation.

BANKING SECTOR DEVELOPMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A BOOTSTRAP PANEL GRANGER CAUSALITY ANALYSIS

The purpose of this paper is to revisit the Granger causal relationship between banking sector development and economic growth for forty developing countries in the period 1970-2012. We devised two indices to comprehensively assess the development of the banking sector and employed a panel bootstrapped approach for Granger causality testing. This method adequately addresses concerns related to cross-sectional dependence and heterogeneity. Our empirical findings offer modest backing for the supply-leading, demand-following, and complementarity hypotheses. Moreover, our analysis suggests a causal relationship between banking sector development and economic growth across twenty-five countries. This paper investigates the relationship between banking sector development and economic growth in developing countries using a Bootstrap Panel Granger Causality Analysis. The banking sector plays a crucial role in fostering economic development by mobilizing savings, allocating capital efficiently, and channeling investments into productive sectors. However, the precise nature of the causal linkages between banking sector development and economic growth remains subject to empirical scrutiny, particularly in the context of developing economies characterized by diverse institutional settings and economic structures. Employing a panel data approach, this study examines the causal dynamics between banking sector development and economic growth across a sample of developing countries. By leveraging the richness of cross-country variation and time-series dynamics, we aim to provide a nuanced understanding of the symbiotic relationship between banking sector development and economic growth. Our discoveries illuminate the causal connection between banking sector advancement and economic growth in developing nations, presenting significant insights for policymakers, economists, and scholars. Through informing policy discussions and promoting data-driven decision-making, this research contributes to the crucial goals of sustainable development and inclusive growth in developing economies.

Advancing Environmental Sustainability: A Quantitative Assessment of Legal Frameworks and Policy Efficacy

This study conducts a comprehensive quantitative assessment of the effectiveness of environmental laws and policies in addressing global environmental challenges. Through a meticulous comparative analysis of environmental legislation across the United States, Germany, Brazil, and China, we explore the diverse legal architectures and their impacts on air and water quality, biodiversity conservation, and climate change mitigation. Employing sophisticated econometric models, including linear and logistic regression, Poisson regression, and difference-in-differences analysis, alongside system dynamics modeling, we quantitatively evaluate the relationship between policy instruments, technological innovation, and international agreements on environmental outcomes. Our findings reveal significant correlations between stringent environmental laws, effective enforcement mechanisms, technological advancements, and improved environmental quality. However, the analysis also underscores the need for adaptive policy frameworks, enhanced international cooperation, and increased policy ambition to meet global sustainability targets. This study contributes to the environmental law and policy discourse by providing evidence-based insights into the roles and impacts of legal and policy instruments in fostering environmental sustainability.

Positioning the Creative City Agenda Within Urban Policy Discourse: The Malaysian Scenario

As the hype of the creative city model transcends Western borders to Eastern settings, Malaysian cities are fast embracing it as sine qua non urban development strategy. The global creative city model, however, is fraught with conceptual and operational ambiguities when dissecting the notions of “cultural industries” and “creative industries”. The “knowledge economy-based concept of creative industries” is widely critiqued as being void of cultural content. Malaysia is also caught in this conundrum due to national aspirations to be a knowledge and creative economy. The aim of this article is to examine how the Malaysian creative city agenda is positioned within urban policy discourse as the nation’s structural base shifts from industrial to services and the creative economy. Based on qualitative research techniques (i.e. interviews, focus group discussions, fieldwork observations), primary data was collected in selected Malaysian cities from 2019 to 2021. The study indicated that the creative city strategy is still nascent in Malaysia and not systematically integrated and intersected across urban policy domains. This article recommends the need to integrate the elements of culture and creativity more distinctively across all urban policy domains in the quest to develop culturally sensitive and sustainable Malaysian creative cities.

미혼모의 사회적 지지와 미혼모지원제도 인식 수준이 자립의지에 미치는 영향

The purpose of this study is to understand the effect of social support of unmarried mothers and the level of awareness of the unmarried mother support system on their will to become independent. To this end, data of 145 unmarried mothers in the 00 Unmarried Mothers Association were used for the final analysis. As a result of the analysis, among the sub-factors of social support, evaluation support and parenting and care among the sub-factors of the level of recognition of the unmarried mother support system showed a statistically significant positive (+) relationship with the will to become independent. Based on these research results, I would like to make the following suggestions. First, the related system should be supplemented with customized support that meets the needs and needs of unmarried mothers and fathers, and in addition, a strong support policy should be supported so that unmarried mothers can become economically independent by recognizing the qualifications for basic supply regardless of employment status or income. Second, it is necessary to strengthen the promotion of individual programs of the unmarried mother support system, improve the delivery system, and change social awareness. Third, since the subjective health status affects the will of unmarried mothers to become independent, it is required to prepare health support and mental health programs for unmarried mothers to raise awareness of the subjective health status. Based on the results of this study, I hope that practical and policy discussions to improve the will of unmarried mothers to become independent will be activated

Determinants of self-reported chronic disease diagnoses among older persons in South Africa.

Chronic diseases tend to affect the quality of life for older persons worldwide, especially in resource-constrained developing countries. Chronic diseases contribute to a large number of deaths among the population of South Africa. This study examines the determinants of self-reported chronic disease diagnoses among older persons in South Africa. The study setting was South Africa. Cross-sectional data from the 2019 South Africa General Household Survey were analysed (n[weighted] = 4 887 334). We fitted a binary logistic regression model to determine the relationship between socio-demographic factors and being diagnosed with self-reported chronic diseases. We found that at least 5 in 10 older persons were diagnosed with self-reported chronic disease. The bivariate findings showed that age, population group, sex, marital status, level of education, disability status, household composition and province were significantly associated with self-reported chronic disease diagnoses. At the multivariate level, we found that age, sex, population group, marital status, educational level, disability status, household wealth status, household composition and province were key predictors of self-reported chronic disease diagnoses. We found that various factors were key determinants of being diagnosed with self-reported chronic diseases. This study offers important insights into the main correlations between older adults and self-reported chronic illness diagnoses. More study is required on the health of the elderly as it will help direct policy discussions and improve the development of health policies about the elderly.Contribution:This study highlights the need for a better understanding of, and continued research into, the determinants health among older populations to guide future healthcare strategies.