Ordos Basin Research Articles

Biomechanical influence of organic matter enrichment and sedimentary environment in the Ordos Basin

Biomechanical influence of organic matter enrichment and sedimentary environment in the Ordos Basin

Study on the Key Factors Controlling Oil Accumulation in a Multi-Source System: A Case Study of the Chang 9 Reservoir in the Triassic Yanchang Formation, Dingbian Area, Ordos Basin, China

Reservoir evaluation in multi-source systems is challenging because studies generally follow single-source principles. This limitation has substantially hindered the understanding of reservoir and hydrocarbon accumulation processes in source–reservoir systems. This study examines the Dingbian area of the Ordos Basin, China, and investigates the key factors controlling hydrocarbon accumulation in the Chang 9 reservoir of the Triassic Yanchang Formation within a multi-source system. The study area spans approximately 0.9 × 104 km2. First, by comparing the biological markers in Chang 9 crude oil with those of potential source rocks, the oil source of the Chang 9 reservoir was identified. The study area was subsequently divided into three provenance zones—northeast, northwest, and central mixed source areas—based on heavy mineral content and the orientation of sedimentary sand bodies. Additionally, well logging data, oil production data, petrographic thin sections, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and mercury injection porosimetry were used to investigate the reservoir characteristics, oil reservoir features, and crude oil properties across different source areas. The results indicate that the oil source of the Chang 9 reservoir in the Dingbian area is the Upper Chang 7 source rock. The northwest source area exhibits superior reservoir properties compared to the other two zones. In the northwest source area, lithology-structure oil reservoirs are predominant, whereas the central mixed source area is characterized by structural-lithology oil reservoirs, and the northeast source area predominantly features lithology-controlled reservoirs. From the northwest to the central mixed source areas, and finally to the northeast source area, crude oil density and viscosity increase gradually, while the degree of oil–water separation decreases correspondingly. Based on these findings, the study concludes that the distribution of structures, lithology, and source rocks significantly influences the Chang 9 reservoirs in the Dingbian area. The controlling factors of oil reservoirs differ across the various source zones. In multi-source systems, evaluating oil reservoirs based on source zones provides more precise insights into the characteristics of reservoirs in each area. This approach provides more accurate guidance for exploration and development in multi-source regions, as well as for subsequent “reserve enhancement and production increase” strategies.

A Method for Predicting Different Types of Natural Fractures in Tight Sandstone Based on the Secondary Rescaled Range Analysis of Logging Curves: A Case Study From the Chang 7 Member in Huaqing Oilfield, Ordos Basin, China

A Method for Predicting Different Types of Natural Fractures in Tight Sandstone Based on the Secondary Rescaled Range Analysis of Logging Curves: A Case Study From the Chang 7 Member in Huaqing Oilfield, Ordos Basin, China

Multiple-point geostatistical modeling for fault-controlled tight sandstone reservoirs based on probability fusion of permanence of ratios: a tight sandstone oil reservoir in the southern margin of the ordos basin

Unlike conventional sandstone reservoirs, which store hydrocarbons in sandstone pores, fault-controlled tight sandstone reservoirs are unconventional, primarily storing oil or/and gas in fault zones. While these reservoirs have significant reserves, their highly heterogeneous fault zones structures, including fault core and damage zone, pose challenges for geological modeling and precise development. Traditional two-point geostatistics (TPG) struggle to reproduce strike-slip fault zones patterns, and object-based methods have difficulty statistically quantifying their structural parameters. Deterministic methods, truncated by seismic data threshold, often misalign with well data, reducing accuracy in representing fault zone details. To overcome these challenges, we propose a new modeling workflow for fault-controlled tight sandstone reservoirs based on multi-sources information-constrained multiple-point geostatistics (MPG). First, a deep neural network (DNNs) is used to correlate conventional logging curves with fracture density (FD) to obtain well-interpreted facies data. Next, inter-well factors like brittleness index, shale content, and fault proximity are used to construct four single-sources probability bodies. These are combined into a multi-source probability body using the Permanence of Ratios (PR) method, which effectively integrates the contributions of different sources for greater constraint. Finally, the multiple-point geostatistical direct sampling (DS) algorithm generates a three-dimensional (3-D) geological model that captures the reservoir’s geological features, while satisfying the multi-source information constraints. The results shows that the proposed method effectively reduces model uncertainty and improves spatial prediction of the reservoir, achieving over 85% accuracy when compared with field production data. This workflow offers a promising approach for fine-scale modeling of fault-controlled tight sandstone reservoirs, with broad potential for similar reservoir development and management.

Gas–Water Distribution and Controlling Factors in a Tight Sandstone Gas Reservoir: A Case Study of Southern Yulin, Ordos Basin, China

The intricate gas–water distribution patterns in tight sandstone gas reservoirs significantly impede effective exploration and development, particularly challenging sweet spot prediction. In the Upper Paleozoic Shanxi Formation of the Ordos Basin, the complex and variable gas–water distribution characteristics remain poorly understood regarding their spatial patterns and controlling mechanisms. This study employs an integrated analytical approach combining casting thin sections, conventional porosity–permeability measurements, and mercury intrusion porosimetry to systematically investigate the petrological characteristics, pore structure, and physical properties of the Shan 2 member reservoirs in southern Yulin. Through the comprehensive analysis of production data coupled with structural and sand body distribution patterns, we identify three predominant formation water types: edge/bottom water, isolated lens-shaped water bodies, and residual water in tight sandstone gas layers. Our findings reveal that three primary factors govern water distribution in the Shan 2 member reservoirs: sand body architecture controlling fluid migration pathways; reservoir quality determining fluid storage capacity; and structural configuration influencing fluid accumulation patterns. This multi-scale characterization provides critical insights for optimizing development strategies in similar tight sandstone reservoirs.

Analysis of Geological Characteristics and Reservoir Potential Formation Damage Factors of Shallow Low‐Temperature Low‐Pressure Low‐Permeability Sandstone Reservoir

ABSTRACTThe C‐S reservoir in the YQ district of Ordos basin, China, is located at a relatively shallow depth (240–720 m), with an original pressure coefficient of approximately 0.85 for the oil layer. Calculations indicate that the initial pressure of the oil layer ranges from 4.1 to 6.0 MPa, averaging 4.75 MPa, with an average temperature of 30°C. The reservoir is classified as shallow, low‐pressure, low‐temperature sandstone. This research examines the C‐S tight sandstone oil reservoir located in the Ordos Basin, providing an in‐depth analysis of its mineral and rock composition along with its porosity and permeability characteristics. Through the analysis of the microscopic geological features of the reservoir, significant geological factors that may contribute to reservoir degradation are identified. Research shows that the C‐S reservoir has an average porosity of 8.39%, average permeability of 0.54 × 10−3 μm2, a micro‐thin‐necked pore type, and a median pore radius of 1.9060 μm. The reservoir exhibits strong heterogeneity, characterized by low porosity and permeability. Laboratory experiments revealed sensitivity characteristics including weak sensitivity to velocity and water, as well as moderate sensitivity to acid and salt. Water‐phase seal test results show that the self‐absorption rate decreases to less than 0.1 g/h within about 12 h, leading to significant water‐phase seal formation damage due to high water saturation (above 45%) within a short time. The research suggests that limited fluid passageways in the reservoir result in insufficient in situ energy for fluid migration and increased viscosity, which complicates the process of returning fractured reservoirs to their original state after digitalization.

Formation and Development of Abnormal Low Pressure in the Yanchang Formation of the Central‐Eastern Ordos Basin and its Influencing Factors

AbstractThe present‐day pressure pattern is the ultimate result of the evolution of paleo‐pressure, so understanding the variation of stress throughout geological history is of great significance for oil and gas accumulation. In this study, the fission track method was used to reconstruct the cooling history of sandstone samples from the Yanchang Fm. in the central‐eastern Ordos Basin and the cause of the low‐pressure anomaly in the Yanchang Fm. was analyzed. The max. burial depth pressure was reconstructed and the pressure evolution of the formation in the Futan 1 well was simulated, using Petromod 1D. The fission track data and Petromod 1D simulation results indicate that the Yanchang Fm. reached its max. burial depth and experienced a high paleo‐pressure of 30.92 MPa at around 100 Ma. Since the Late Cretaceous, the formation pressure evolution in the study area can be divided into two stages. From 100 to 20 Ma, the formation slowly uplifted, with the pressure gradually decreasing. Since the Miocene (about 20 Ma), the pressure rapidly decreased to the current pressure of approximately 6.92 MPa. Based on the above research results, the influence of pore rebound and temperature decrease on formation pressure was quantitatively calculated. The results show that during the first stage, the pressure reduction caused by pore rebound and cooling was 3.86 MPa and 3.49 MPa, respectively, with a decrease of about 12.48% and 11.28%. During the second stage, the pressure reduction caused by pore rebound and cooling was 6.32 MPa and 9.60 MPa, respectively, with a decrease of about 20.43% and 31.04%. The formation of low pressure in the Yanchang Fm. in the central and eastern basin is mainly controlled by pore rebound and temperature reduction, caused by erosion after stratigraphic uplift. The decrease in temperature plays a decisive role in determining the formation process of the low‐pressure oil reservoir.

Pore structure heterogeneity of Chang 7 shale in Ordos Basin: insights from NMR and multifractal theory

Quantitative characterization of heterogeneity of shale nanopores and its influencing factors are of significant impact on the occurrence quantity, pore size, and mobility of shale oil. 25 Chang 7 shale samples were analyzed for geochemical properties, mineral composition, FE-SEM, and NMR. Combined with multifractal theory, the heterogeneity characteristics and influencing factors of shale pore structure were studied, and the reservoir classification was carried out. The results show that: pore types include microfracture, intercrystalline pores, intergranular pores, intragranular dissolved pores and organic matter shrinkage pore. The pore size distribution of shale samples is divided into 4 groups according to T 2, gm and T 2, 50 , in which the pore-scale composition gradually transitions to micropores (<100 nm), while the heterogeneity gradually diminishes. TOC, the content of clay matrix and pyrite are positively correlated with multifractal parameters, while T max , the content of quartz, feldspar, and carbonates show opposite trends. T 2 spectrum parameters T 2, gm and multifractal parameters and D 1 / D 2 can effectively classify shale oil reservoir quality. This study provides insights and reference for the characterization of pore heterogeneity and reservoir classification of shale oil reservoirs.

The Geological Characteristics of Low‐Permeability Sandstone Uranium Deposit in Ordos Basin, North China: Implications of Cause of Low Permeability and Corresponding In Situ Leaching Methods

ABSTRACTThis study delves into the low‐permeability sandstone uranium deposits in China's Ordos Basin, examining the Daying and Bayinqinggeli deposits. Employing x‐ray diffraction, clay mineral analysis, x‐ray fluorescence, core porosity, gas permeability tests, micrometre computed tomography (CT), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the research reveals the low‐permeability genesis of these uranium deposits. The findings highlight a high presence of clay minerals, with Daying from 11.5% to 31.5%, and Bayinqinggeli at about 10%. Dense calcareous interlayers are common, with carbonate minerals like calcite and dolomite filling pore spaces and cementing rock‐forming minerals, reducing pore sizes and ineffective connectivity, creating dead pore spaces and lowered permeability. The study concludes that the high montmorillonite content and calcareous cementation are the main causes of low permeability, providing a theoretical basis for future permeability enhancement and sustainable exploitation of uranium resources.

Study on quantitative characterization of microscopic pore throat in tight oil reservoir

Tight oil reservoirs exhibit poor physical properties, significant heterogeneity, and intricate pore structures. The investigation of the microscopic pore-throat structure plays a pivotal role in assessing the efficacy of these reservoirs. Using the Chang 8 reservoir in the Yanchi area of the Ordos Basin as a case study, conventional experimental methods were used to analyze and test its pore structure and evaluate the micro pore structure characteristics of the reservoir in this area, but due to the large amount of experimental data obtained by the conventional experimental methods and the difficulty of analyzing them, so we proposed a method of logging and evaluating the quality of the microscopic pore throats. By carrying out the research on the quantitative characterization relationship between the microscopic pore structure parameters and microscopic pore-throat quality of the tight reservoir, the pore-throat quality logging evaluation index PTI was obtained, and the quantitative evaluation standard of microscopic pore-throat quality of the tight sandstone reservoir was established. The findings indicate the following: (1) The predominant pore types within the Chang 8 reservoir in the study region consist mainly of intergranular pores and feldspar dissolved pores, showing an average surface porosity of 3.3%. The reservoir predominantly comprises nano-scale pore throats, contributing to its dense nature. Fluid seepage capacity is primarily governed by relatively larger pores. The main throat radius falls within the range of 101–601 nm, with an average pore throat ratio mainly ranging between 102 and 199. The average movable fluid saturation is measured at 26.51%. (2) After thorough analysis, it has been discerned that four key parameters—porosity (φ), median radius (Rpt50), displacement pressure (Pd), and maximum pore throat radius (Rmax)—exert significant influence on pore throat quality. Consequently, a logging evaluation index, PTI (Pore Throat Index), has been devised to gauge pore throat quality, accompanied by the establishment of a quantitative evaluation standard for the microscopic pore throat quality of tight sandstone reservoirs. (3) The reservoirs within the research area are categorized into four groups: I, II, III, and IV. A higher PTI value indicates superior pore throat quality, leading to an overall enhanced reservoir evaluation. This quantitative evaluation method is of guiding significance for the quantitative characterization of micropore throats in tight oil reservoirs and the efficient development of the oil field in this area, and it is also of some reference significance for the quantitative characterization of micropore throats in similar tight sandstone reservoirs.

Effect of pore-throat structure on movable fluid and gas–water seepage in tight sandstone from the southeastern Ordos Basin, China

This study investigates the micro-pore-throat structure of Upper Paleozoic tight sandstone gas reservoirs in the southeastern Ordos Basin, China, with a focus on the Yan'an gas field. The aim is to analyze the micro-pore-throat characteristics and their influence on fluid seepage to optimize gas–water two-phase flow, reservoir evaluation, and development strategies. The research integrates core analysis, thin section petrography, FE-SEM, MICP, NMR, and gas–water relative permeability tests. By combining NMR and HPMI, it offers a comprehensive characterization of pore-throat structures across various size ranges, and applies fractal dimensions to assess heterogeneity at multiple scales. Results indicate that the reservoir’s pore space is primarily composed of dissolved pores and micropores with limited connectivity and low permeability, influenced by clay content and pore-throat morphology. The pore-throat structure exhibits fractal characteristics with distinct large and small pore-throats. Larger pore-throats (> 0.1 μm) are more heterogeneous, while smaller pore-throats exhibit less variation. Permeability is largely controlled by larger pore-throats, which enhance reservoir properties. Well-developed pore-throat structures promote the occurrence of movable fluids and improve the seepage capacity of both gas and water. Larger pore-throats (> 1 μm) significantly increase relative permeability and gas displacement efficiency. A new reservoir quality parameter (H) is introduced, classifying reservoirs into four types, with Type I being most favorable for development. This parameter can be directly applied to improve reservoir management and to maximize gas recovery and optimize fluid flow. This study enhances understanding of fluid flow in tight sandstone gas reservoirs and provides a novel framework for efficient reservoir evaluation, management, and optimization in reservoir development.

Intelligent recognition of “geological-engineering” sweet spots in tight sandstone reservoirs - an application to a tight gas reservoir in Ordos Basin, China

Tight sandstone reservoirs have become a focal area in the exploration and development of oil and gas in recent years. However, the complexity of their geological conditions and the significant heterogeneity of reservoir properties make the identification of sweet spots challenging. Traditional methods heavily rely on the experience and judgment of geologists and engineers, which introduces considerable subjectivity and uncertainty. The advent of artificial intelligence offers new avenues for identifying sweet spots in tight sandstone reservoirs. This study, based on an integrated geological-engineering perspective and utilizing data analysis and multiple machine learning methods, innovatively proposes a regression prediction model that integrates the Triangulation Topology Aggregation Optimizer (TTAO) algorithm, Random Forest (RF), and Multi-Head Self-Attention Mechanism (MSA), aiming to enhance the accuracy of oil and gas sweet spot identification. The case study utilizes actual data from the He8 section in the Ordos Basin, China. The results indicate that sweet spots are influenced by a combination of geological, rock mechanical parameters, and hydraulic fracturing operation parameters. The dominant reservoir properties affecting post-fracture productivity include gas saturation, porosity, and permeability, while the principal rock mechanics factors are fracture toughness and the difference in horizontal stresses. The critical fracturing operation factors are total fluid volume, total sand volume, and pre-pad fluid. Based on the analysis of dominant factors affecting productivity, the proposed hybrid machine learning model achieved an accuracy of 86.7% in identifying sweet spots. A three-dimensional geological-engineering sweet spot model considering lithology, physical properties, and rock mechanics characteristics was established, offering targeted areas for future well placement. Future applications of this model could achieve cross-regional adaptability by adjusting input parameters according to specific geological and engineering conditions.

Features of Karst Paleogeomorphology and Sedimentary Environment of Ordovician Majiagou Formation in Eastern Ordos Basin.

The formation and evolution of carbonate weathering crust-type reservoirs are closely linked to paleokarst processes. This study aims to restore and analyze the karst paleogeomorphology and sedimentary environment of the Ma2 and Ma3 sections in the eastern Ordos Basin, using the compensation thickness impression method. The Ma3 section is characterized by widespread distribution and considerable thickness, with clear inheritance among the sublayers and minimal variation in thickness across the section. In contrast, the Ma2 section exhibits a similar thickness for each sublayer, with a notable ring-like pattern of increasing thickness toward the center of the basin. The Ma3 section primarily consists of evaporite platform facies under a regression system, with intraplatform lagoons and evaporite tidal flats being the dominant subfacies. In contrast, the Ma2 section is mainly composed of open platform facies under a marine transgression system, with the primary development of intraplatform depressions and tidal flat subfacies. The top of the Ma4 formation is selected as the regional isochronous surface for the restoration of paleogeomorphology. The paleo geomorphological framework of the Ma2 and Ma3 sections is located within the first-level geomorphological unit of the carbonate platform. Within this carbonate platform, 3 s-level geomorphological units have developed: the interior platform area, the eroded paleo-land area, and the platform margin area. These units represent key components of the region's paleo geomorphological structure and provide a comprehensive understanding of the sedimentary evolution and karst development in the Eastern Ordos Basin.

Development Unit Division of Low Permeability Reservoir in Y Block, Ordos Basin

The Y block reservoir in Ordos Basin is a typical low porosity and permeability tight sandstone reservoir with poor physical property and strong heterogeneity. On the plane, the small layer sand body Changes quickly, the continuity is poor, the pressure distribution is uneven, and the principal side effect is uneven. In the section, the liquid production in the stratification is not clear, the washing degree of the small layer is different, and the water contradiction in the multi-direction of the single layer is prominent. At present, the overall reservoir decline is fast, some Wells have low productivity and high water cut, and most of the Wells have more open layers. In this paper, based on geological factors and development dynamic factors, combined with fracture identification, the first development unit of Y block reservoir is divided, and on the basis of the first development unit division, the second development unit is further divided according to the situation of small layer division and correlation. The division of the secondary development units can correspond the development contradiction to the small layer, and has guiding significance for the evaluation of the subsequent reservoir development effect and the fine adjustment of development policy.

Lithological characteristics and logging identification methods of the Chang73 menber in Jiyuan area, Ordos Basin

The exploration of shale oil is influenced by the type and spatial distribution of sweet spots in the reservoir. Various types of deep-water fine-grained sedimentary rocks are developed in the Chang73 member of the Ordos Basin. By accurately characterizing the lithology, the distribution patterns and control factors of different lithologies are clarified, which is of great significance for the exploration of sweet spots in shale oil reservoirs in the Chang73 member. Drilling coring is the most accurate method for describing lithology, but the cost of coring is high, and the number of coring wells and sections is limited. The vertical resolution of logging curves is high, which can continuously and in situ reflect the characteristics of formation lithology, thus compensating for the problem of insufficient core wells. Based on the differences in electrical properties, physical properties, and radioactivity of different rock types in logging responses, first, by observing and describing 17 core wells inside the basin, it was identified that the Chang73 member mainly developed fine sandstone, siltstone, muddy siltstone, sandy mudstone, mudstone, and black shale. The logging data values of different rock types were statistically analyzed, and the results showed that the natural gamma and acoustic time difference logging curves had a more obvious response to rock types in different sedimentary facies zones. Secondly, by using the intersection diagram method, different logging classification standards for different rock types were identified. Through comparison and verification with core wells, the conformity rate reached over 80%. Finally, 130 wells in the study area were selected for lithology identification, and the identification results were applied to the plan and profile maps. It was found that the distribution of lithology is significantly controlled by the sedimentary system and sedimentary facies, and the lithology is orderly distributed from the delta front (fine sandstone, siltstone) to semi deep lakes (mudstone) and deep lakes (shale).

Dolomitization of Ordovician Kelimoli carbonates linking to shale oil formation, western Ordos Basin: new insights from magnesium and strontium isotopes

Deciphering the dolomitization process has great significance for high-quality hydrocarbon reservoir prediction in carbonate successions. The Ordovician Wulalike Formation provides shale oil in the western Ordos Basin, while lateral-contact marine dolostones of Kelimoli Formation contribute major reservoirs for extra hydrocarbons. Nonetheless, the origin and occurrence of dolostones are underexplored. Coupled with petrographic and lithologic analyses, this study attempts to investigate the dolomitizing fluid pathways and dolomitization pattern of Ordovician Kelimoli carbonates based on elemental and isotopic geochemistry. Extremely low Rb concentrations (i.e., less than 0.1) and Mn/Sr ratios (i.e., less than 2) of carbonates with micropores indicated that they are a valid proxy for geochemical signatures of coeval seawater. By contrast, dolostones developing vuggy pores showed a pronouncedly higher 87Sr/86Sr composition and Mn contents than other dolostone types, revealing that vuggy dolostones experienced meteoric water leaching and underwent geochemical alterations. Quantitative calculation of 87Sr/86Sr ratios and fluid-inclusion microthermometry revealed that the Kelimoli dolostones (i.e., dolograinstones and crystallized dolostones) were formed before meteoric water leaching influences at a deep-burial environment under seawater derivatives and sealed brine water. In evaporite–dolograinstone successions, increase in the magnesium isotopic composition (δ26Mg) with increasing burial depths indicated that the dolomitizing fluid migrated downwardly. Comprehensive isotopic evidences of 87Sr/86Sr, δ18O, and δ13C suggested that the dolomitizing fluid was a derivative of coeval seawater. In crystallized dolostone successions, upwardly heaving of δ26Mg ratios revealed that the dolomitizing fluid moved upwardly. The 87Sr/86Sr, δ18O, and δ13C and microthermometric evidence indicated that these dolostones were formed at a deep-burial, high-temperature environment and the dolomitizing fluid was derived from sealed brine water. Based on the above investigation, a comprehensive dolomitizing pattern was proposed for the studied section of Ordovician Kelimoli Formation.

Engineering Sweet Spot Evaluation of Deep Coal Seam: Algorithm Construction and Application Integrated with Geological Sweet Spot—A Case Study in Ordos Basin, China

Engineering Sweet Spot Evaluation of Deep Coal Seam: Algorithm Construction and Application Integrated with Geological Sweet Spot—A Case Study in Ordos Basin, China

Late Carboniferous to Permian paleoclimatic and tectono-sedimentary evolution of the central Ordos Basin, western north China Block

Late Carboniferous to Permian paleoclimatic and tectono-sedimentary evolution of the central Ordos Basin, western north China Block

The fractal characteristics of the pore throat structure of tight sandstone and its influence on oil content: A case study of the Chang 7 Member of the Ordos Basin, China

The fractal characteristics of the pore throat structure of tight sandstone and its influence on oil content: A case study of the Chang 7 Member of the Ordos Basin, China

Geophysics Indicator of Sandstone‐Type Uranium Mineralization in the Northern Ordos Basin, China: Analysis From Gravity and Magnetic Data

AbstractOrdos Basin, one of the largest uranium resource areas in China, holds significant potential due to its favorable metallogenic geological conditions and promising potential. Early exploration efforts primarily targeted sandstone‐hosted uranium deposits. Recently, the discovery of several large and super‐large sandstone‐type uranium deposits has revealed previously unrecognized uranium‐bearing formations. However, these newly identified formations have yet to undergo systematic research on their geological conditions and metallogenesis processes, highlighting the urgent need for further investigation to advance metallogenic theory. Additionally, fault structures, which are critical to the metalization process, remain insufficiently described due to lack of comprehensive geophysical data. To bridge this gap, this study employs areal data to characterize the geophysical signatures of both traditional and newly discovered ore‐bearing formations. The research delineates the distributions of primary and secondary faults, analyzes the characteristic of basement relief, and integrates basin evolution with key metallogenic factors utilizing gravity and magnetic exploration. Furthermore, the study identifies two promising metallogenic zones, offering essential insights to guide future exploration, resource development, and efficient exploitation strategies.