As the European Union (EU) cannot become a member of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), its external competences relating to the IMO’s work in the shipping sector can only be exercised by the Member States, acting jointly in the interest of the EU. This article explores in what capacity the Member States act in the IMO and argues that, in line with the Court’s recent judgment in Case C-161/20 (IMO II), the Member States act in their own name in the IMO, as trustees of the EU interest. Proposals or other submissions to IMO bodies cannot, therefore, be submitted ‘on behalf of the EU’ anymore. Still, despite its indirect influence on IMO affairs, the EU institutions can give the necessary instructions for Member State action in order to align it with the common position coordinated at EU level, the Member States being obliged to follow the Union instructions as a consequence of the duty of sincere cooperation (Article 4(3) TEU).

Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have long supported public health programs by delivering services, raising awareness, and advocating for policy change. Despite their key role in addressing complex health issues like HIV and COVID-19, their involvement in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) strategies remains underexplored. This study reviews how CSOs and NGOs are framed within AMR National Action Plans (NAPs) to better understand their role in mitigating AMR. Policy review. A content analysis of publicly available AMR NAPs was conducted using key terms related to CSOs and NGOs. Relevant excerpts were coded across seven focus areas of engagement, with multiple reviewers to ensure consistency. Data were analysed thematically to identify patterns in CSO and NGO involvement across countries. Of the 194 WHO member states, 129 (63%) AMR National Action Plans (NAPs) were available and reviewed, with 27% inclusive of 2025. References to CSOs appeared in 40% of NAPs, and NGOs in 51%, though the extent and specificity of their roles varied widely. CSO involvement was most commonly associated with advocacy, particularly in low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs), while education, prevention, surveillance, and resource mobilisation were less frequently addressed. Participation in government committees and policy-making was limited. The study revealed that referenced CSO and NGO involvement is often broad and lacks specificity. These findings underscore the need for more precise and context-specific inclusion of CSOs in AMR strategies to enhance their contribution to policy implementation and community-level action.

Cyber Capacity Building (CCB) has become a key instrument in the external dimension of the European Union (EU) cybersecurity policies. This paper examines how the EU operationalizes its strategic and geopolitical interests through cyber cooperation with three key neighbouring regions: the Southern Neighbourhood (SN), the Eastern Neighbourhood (EN), and the Western Balkans (WB). Drawing on a comparative analysis of CCB projects funded by the EU and its Member States, the study identifies three differentiated scripts in cyber cooperation: law enforcement, governance, and resilience. The paper argues that the EU’s approach to CCB is strategically instrumentalized and differentiated to reflect broader geopolitical, security, and integration objectives, ranging from stabilizing border regions and managing external threats to extending its regulatory influence. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the EU’s evolving ambition to act as a geopolitical and normative actor in global cybersecurity governance, and they underscore how differentiated regional engagement reflects the EU’s strategic priorities in the digital age.

• Poor indoor air quality is preventable public health risk. • The updated Energy Performance of Buildings Directive includes indoor air quality. • Europe has a major opportunity to protect the health of building occupants. • The European Union should adopt a health-based framework for indoor air quality. Poor indoor air quality is a common and preventable public health risk that contributes to chronic disease, infectious disease transmission, and economic losses. Europe’s updated Energy Performance of Buildings Directive integrates indoor environmental quality into building policy for the first time, representing a major opportunity for Europe to protect the health of building occupants and set an example for the world. With a May 2026 deadline approaching, EU Member States should adopt a health-based framework for indoor air quality and aim to harmonize standards across Europe.

Issues concerning pensions are of obvious importance not only for European Union Member States, but for the entire EU as well, even if the latter formally is only concerned with questions of their cross-border mobility, consumer protection and the internal market, while pension sustainability forms part of macroeconomic policy co-ordination within the EU. In this regard, the Union has i.a. set minimum requirements for the operation of institutions for occupational retirement provision (IORPs), and created a dedicated legal framework for a pan-European personal pension product (PEPP). It is therefore worthwhile attempting to synthetically analyse implementation of the acts of European Union secondary law on these, especially in the light of the most recent documents on the matters in question produced by EU institutions. These analyses conclude, that the Union’s actions have not been effective so far either in strengthening the role of occupational pensions provided by IORPs, cross-border activity of which remains unevenly spread, concentrated in a few Member States where occupational pensions had already been traditionally rooted, or in establishing PEPP, which continues to be off to a very slow start, thus not becoming a viable retirement saving option for EU citizens compared to other products available.

This article addresses the issue of gender discrimination in the labor market, focusing on pay inequality. Although Poland has one of the lowest pay gaps for women compared to other European Union countries, if we look at the issue of gender inequality more broadly, through the prism of economic indicators, educational achievements, health and life expectancy, and political equality, we occupy a disadvantageous position in the ranking of EU member states. This article has two main goals. The primary goal of the text is to present the main assumptions of the EU regulation – the Gender Payment Gap, which is intended to reduce the pay gap between women and men in similar positions. The second goal of the article is to analyze statistical data relating to the problem of pay discrimination between women and men in the medium term (2012-2022), which provided the background for an overview of the Gender Payment Gap directive. Eurostat statistical data and data from the Global Gap Reports, which are prepared on behalf of the World Economic Forum, are presented.

This study examines the implementation of the Maritime Labour Convention (MLC) 2006 as an international regime in the context of Indonesian seafarers working in South Korea. Using an international regime perspective that emphasizes norms as instruments governing the behavior of member states, this research contributes novelty by revealing operational differences between the internationally navigating fish carrier sector and the small-scale fishing vessel sector. Employing a descriptive qualitative method, primary data were obtained through in-depth interviews with key informants namely a marine engineer officer on a merchant vessel and an official of the Jangkar Karat Indonesia labor union selected through purposive sampling based on work experience, and further strengthened by thematic analysis of complaint records from BP2MI. The findings indicate that large merchant vessels tend to demonstrate compliance with MLC 2006 standards, while small fishing vessels still exhibit significant violations, including working hour violations, wage discrepancies, and inadequate health protection for seafarers. This study concludes that ratification status does not automatically guarantee comprehensive compliance, and that strengthening oversight mechanisms and transnational cooperation particularly between Indonesia and South Korea is essential to closing this implementation gap.

Bulgaria occupies a unique position among European Union member states, with the lowest per capita healthcare expenditure (€990 annually) yet demonstrating the second-highest growth rate in health spending between 2014 and 2022. This economic paradox reflects the dynamics of a developing market operating under resource constraints while facing growing needs from an aging population. The medical devices sector is an essential component of Bulgaria‘s healthcare system, including products ranging from simple consumables to sophisticated implantable devices and advanced diagnostic equipment. This review examines the Bulgarian medical device landscape through multiple dimensions: historical evolution from medieval surgical instruments to contemporary AI-integrated systems, fundamental distinctions from pharmaceuticals and dietary supplements based on mechanisms of action, the comprehensive regulatory framework under Medical Device Regilation (MDR) 2017/745, institutional interactions among key organizations (the Bulgarian Drug Agency, the National Health Insurance Fund, the Ministry of Health), and market trends shaped by demographic transformation. With a population of 6.44 million (23.8% over 65 years), Bulgaria faces pressing demographic challenges that reshape healthcare demand patterns. The analysis reveals a market exceeding €300 million, dependent on imports (>90%), with limited domestic manufacturing capacity. Despite the financial constraints, Bulgaria has achieved an international recognition through top-tier regulatory inspections and active participation in the European regulatory structures. The review outlines perspectives for short-term priorities (2025–2027), medium-term objectives (2027–2030), and long-term vision (2030+) for sector development, emphasizing the digital transformation, regional coverage improvement, and demographic crisis management through the technological innovation.

This paper was written after the beginning of the 2022 energy and security crisis in Europe, which forced the national state governments as well as the European Union (EU) to reexamine environmental and energy strategies. The paper focuses on the role that small modular reactors (SMRs) may play as a part of a medium and long-term solution to this unprecedented situation. The history of EU climate policies and the current energy situation in the EU is broadly examined. The paper explores the potential energy, national security, and environmental benefits of nuclear power, along with its possible contribution to a net-zero economy. The main focus of the study, involving discussions with experts in the United States (US), was on the development of SMR-specific regulations, as well as the progress of SMR deployment projects in the US. The discussion explores SMR deployment challenges and potential solutions, in terms of policy recommendations applicable for the EU and its member states, in case a rapid SMR deployment becomes politically desirable.

Purpose Today, environmental, social and governance (ESG) issues are very important for the corporate sustainability reporting performance and trustworthiness. To help organizations respond to these expectations, guides have been designed, offering a systematic approach for reporting ESG information. Although such standards facilitate firms to disclose a complete picture of their ESG performance, the effective implementations of these guidelines remain a challenge for the business community. In this context, this paper examines the quality of ESG information disclosed by Greek firms in relation to an ESG guide introduced by the Athens Stock Exchange (Greece) which is in line with the various international standards. Design/methodology/approach An evaluation framework based on a content analysis technique was constructed that combines a set of reporting topics and a scoring system. This framework was applied to a sample of Greek sustainability reports to assess the quality of the disclosed ESG information. Findings The findings showed that the sampled firms provide a moderate level of ESG disclosure in terms of both quality and quantity. Environmental issues are the most well-disclosed issues compared to the other two ESG dimensions, with industry sensitivity (i.e. division into sensitive and non-sensitive sectors) being a factor which affects disclosure performance. In contrast the listed status of firms and the publication years do not affect the disclosure quality. Originality/value This paper contributes to the literature on the quality of ESG disclosures. Focusing on the Greek context, it provides insights into the ESG reporting behavior of firms operating under the common regulatory regime of a European Union member state. It offers empirical evidence on the ESG reporting practices of Greek firms and their initial responses to the requirements of an ESG guideline.

Study on the Trade Potential and Efficiency Loss of China’s Agricultural Exports to RCEP Member States

Recent urban planning in Southeast Asia has incorporated the theme of transforming cities to ‘smart city’ status. However, the central question raised in this study is whether the ASEAN’s conception of smart cities is genuinely sustainable. Based on the backdrop of Southeast Asia’s disparity in economic performances and diversity in its political, social, economic, and environmental dimensions, this study updates Crumpton’s 2021 study on the ‘quintuple helix model’ and argues that new observations but old patterns are found in the ASEAN Smart Cities Network’s way of developing cities in Southeast Asia. Through a qualitative document analysis, utilizing published secondary data on the ten ASEAN member states between 2020 and 2024, this study revisits and updates the current state of Southeast Asia and how this corresponds to the challenges of constructing smart cities in democratic, semi-authoritarian, and authoritarian settings.

ABSTRACT This study proposes a comprehensive Asnaf (zakat recipients) development framework that promotes sustainable empowerment and self-reliance through spiritually grounded community and economic development. Anchored in Maqasid al-Shariah and al-Falah, the framework integrates Brown and Hannis’s 10-Step Community Development Model and incorporates SMART goals to ensure structured, measurable outcomes. Using qualitative document analysis of data from Malaysian zakat institutions and global poverty programs, the study emphasizes internal capacity building among amil zakat, including role clarity and performance monitoring. It also draws on international models such as Conditional Cash Transfers and Welfare-to-Work to highlight the importance of behavioral change and strategic investment. Community development is promoted through inclusive participation, such as local support for Asnaf entrepreneurship, religious engagement, and ecosystem linkages between zakat payers and recipients. Adaptable to Malaysia’s decentralized zakat governance, the framework supports broader application across OIC member states and offers an ethically grounded model for long-term poverty alleviation.

ABSTRACT Public private partnership literature promotes hybrid implementation structures as a potential solution to deal with limited resources and high levels of implementation burden and complexity. Despite the growing relevance and promises of hybrid implementation structures, we lack systematic knowledge on what makes governments opt for the establishment of this type of implementation structure. We modify Sabatier and Mazmanian's (1980) seminal model of effective implementation to examine the determinants of policy compliance in the case of a distributive Swiss federal policy that aims at incentivizing hybrid service delivery in its subnational units, that is, the cantons. The Swiss New Regional Policy (NRP) disburses funds to foster peripheral regions and sets the output goal for the cantons to involve private actors as project managers. Analyzing a dataset of 977 implemented NRP projects at the cantonal level using Bayesian logistic multi‐level models, we find that opting for hybrid structures in implementation is not only (1) influenced by the willingness of the cantons to comply with the overall goals of the policy but (2) also by project costs and the amount of financial and personnel resources the cantons possess. This latter insight implies that hybrid implementation structures can be a valid alternative for traditional forms of implementation when governments do not have enough capacities to set up and run regional projects without the help of private actors.

Abstract Motivation Evidence for disaster resilience and policy coherence is limited in the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) region, yet it is key for member states to make informed decisions, optimize resources, and improve the effectiveness of disaster resilience and policy coherence efforts. This evidence, if available and used, has the potential to ensure that disaster resilience policies across different sectors and levels of government work together effectively to achieve desired outcomes, thereby reducing unintended negative consequences of policy decisions. Purpose The article provides contextual insights and empirical evidence on the state and implementation of policy coherence for disaster resilience at the regional level in SADC. It answers three key research questions related to the existence of case studies, the relevance of disaster resilience policy coherence, and how SADC region policies embrace disaster resilience policy coherence. Approach and methods The study used a mixed‐methods design combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. It applied the convergent parallel mixed‐methods design. Both primary and secondary data were collected through a survey questionnaire and key informant interviews. An embedded multiple‐case exploratory approach was used to develop case studies on disaster resilience policy coherence, drawing on selected policy frameworks and practices. Findings The findings reveal that while the concept of policy coherence is widely acknowledged and often embedded in regional and national strategies, the practical realization of this ideal is constrained by political, institutional, technical, and contextual challenges. Policy implications Embracing policy coherence is essential for harmonizing diverse disaster resilience and development frameworks, enabling better preparedness for complex and overlapping challenges. This can be achieved through strengthening political commitment through clear and coordinated policy direction. A key enabling factor is diversifying sources of finance, including public and private, which is essential to increase investment and ensure sustainable funding for SADC's disaster resilience efforts.

ABSTRACT Throughout the COVID‐19 pandemic, militaries mobilized at an unprecedented scale to support domestic response efforts. This was consistent with the growing trend of asset mobilization for military operations other than war during public health emergencies. However, the global scale and vast breadth of civil‐military cooperation invites new considerations regarding the authority and scope of domestic operations of militaries during public health emergencies. We aimed to identify how each UN member state codifies their military's roles and responsibilities in domestic emergencies. We systematically analyzed each nations' domestic military deployment, focusing on the authority, execution and scope of military involvement pertaining to domestic public health emergencies. We then analyzed legally enforceable policies and categorized them respectively. We found that of countries with active military forces, nearly all (170/171) have codified rules on domestic military deployment and 90.59% (154/170) allow domestic military mobilization for any domestic emergency through executive orders. Furthermore, 58.48% (100/171) of countries with an active military have codified the separation of powers to ensure that civilian decision makers are exclusively empowered to mobilize military forces. Finally, we found that 74.85% (128/171) of countries included language that explicitly authorized military involvement in domestic operations, including support for public health emergency response and humanitarian operations. Our findings provide critical data for analyzing the relationship between military operations and public health outcomes. This will enable future research, including how specific domestic military deployment policies impact the effectiveness of military involvement in public health emergencies for population health and civil order.

Telemedicine has become central to digital health strategies, yet the regulatory environment that shapes ethical safeguards and equitable access remains uneven and incompletely assessed across countries. Legal and normative instruments matter because they define requirements for privacy, consent, accountability, professional readiness, and barrier reduction. This study aimed to map the current global landscape of normative instruments related to telemedicine and identify which ethical and social safeguards are explicitly addressed, with particular attention to equity. We conducted a document analysis guided by the READ (ready the materials, extract data, analyze data, and distill findings) framework. From February 2024 to February 2026, we conducted a structured web-based search across all World Health Organization (WHO) member states with no language restrictions, using official government sources, statutory professional regulators, and institutional publication channels. Retrieval combined internal site searches, direct navigation, external search engine queries, and targeted snowball sampling to identify currently in-force instruments. Two researchers independently extracted and coded data using a predefined codebook. We operationalized 10 binary items covering regulatory presence and scope (questions 1 and 2), safeguards for data protection (question 3), consent and disclosure (questions 4 and 5), prior in-person prerequisites (question 6), monitoring (question 7), training requirements (question 8), and equity (questions 9 and 10). We summarized frequencies overall and stratified by WHO region and World Bank income group and conducted a qualitative thematic analysis of included normative instruments. Of the 194 WHO member states, 81 (41.8%) had at least one current normative instrument related to telemedicine in force. Among these, 72.8% (59/81) defined telemedicine or telehealth. Data protection provisions were most common (73/81, 90.1%), followed by mandatory informed consent (n=71, 87.7%) and monitoring mechanisms (n=65, 80.2%). Fewer countries required disclosure of telemedicine limitations (n=36, 44.4%) or mandated telemedicine-specific training (n=26, 32.1%). Prior in-person consultation requirements were uncommon (n=8, 9.9%). Equity-related safeguards were uneven: 51.9% (n=42) referenced justice, equity, or nondiscrimination, whereas 30.9% (n=25) included concrete barrier reduction provisions (eg, digital inclusion or accommodations for people with disabilities and minors). Telemedicine regulation is becoming more common, but both coverage and safeguarding content remain uneven. While privacy, consent, and monitoring are frequently addressed where regulation exists, disclosure, physician competency, and operational equity measures are less consistently specified. Strengthening telemedicine governance will require translating ethical commitments into enforceable standards that address digital determinants of access and protect groups at risk of exclusion.

Type of the article: Research ArticleAbstractThe study examines the nexus between environmental tax revenues, renewable energy adoption, transport research and development expenditure, and green growth across EU-27 countries from 2000 to 2024. The study addresses the critical gap in understanding how fiscal environmental instruments and technological innovation in transport sectors contribute to sustainable development outcomes. Using panel data analysis, the paper employs cross-sectionally augmented autoregressive distributed lag (CS-ARDL) and method of moments quantile regression (MMQR) models to analyze both short-run and long-run relationships while accounting for cross-sectional dependence and heterogeneity. Results reveal that environmental tax revenues positively influence green growth with a long-run elasticity of 0.358, indicating that a 1% increase in environmental taxes enhances adjusted net savings by 0.358%. Renewable energy adoption demonstrates a stronger positive effect with an elasticity of 0.531 in the long run, while transport R&D expenditure exhibits a coefficient of 0.289, suggesting significant contributions to sustainable outcomes. The MMQR analysis demonstrates heterogeneous effects across quantiles, with stronger impacts observed at higher green growth levels. Cross-sectional dependency tests confirm significant spatial spillover effects among EU member states. The findings provide empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of coordinated environmental fiscal policies and targeted innovation investments in transport sectors.

The main goal of 'CAgriLab – Consolidated virtual living lab platform for knowledge sharing and adaption in regenerative agriculture' is to establish a consolidated virtual living lab to enable real-time data sharing and collaboration amongst isolated living labs, lighthouses and farmers for exchanging regenerative agriculture knowledge and practices across diverse environments, leveraging Digital Twin (DT), dataspace, blockchain and artificial intelligence (AI) technologies. The CAgriLab consortium is composed of four organisations from three different EU Member States (Ireland, Poland and Finland). It consists of one university of technology, one university of applied sciences, one research centre and one industrial partner. CAgriLab will leverage existing partner projects to pilot and evaluate a decentralised dataspace platform across three countries, covering different use cases i.e. living labs (Ireland), lighthouses (Finland) and farms (Poland). Three sets of DTs (three countries) will be created and connected by the platform. This article contains an edited version of the original funding proposal. The proposal was evaluated by an International Evaluation Committee and selected for funding by the Call Steering Committee.

In this two-part article, the author discusses the New Belgian CFC Rule under Model A of the ATAD. Part 1 deals with the compatibility of Belgium’s implementation of the ATAD’s CFC substance carve-out with EU law and the CJEU’s case law. Part 2, to be published in issue 5 of European Taxation (2026), analyses the case law of other Member States on the application of the substance carve-out under long-standing entity-based CFC rules. The lessons drawn from these cases will be of particular relevance for Belgium and other EU Member States that have more recently adopted entity-based CFC legislation. Two further issues will also be addressed: the interaction between the CFC substance carve-out and the PSD GAAR and the still unexplored question of the elimination of double taxation arising from the application of the CFC rules.