The present investigation was conducted to evaluate the effect of boron and gibberellic acid (GA3) on the vegetative growth, fruiting, yield, and biochemical quality of phalsa (Grewia asiatica L.). Foliar application of boron (0.2% and 0.4% and GA3 (25 ppm and 50 ppm), alone and in combination, significantly influenced vegetative, reproductive, and quality parameters compared to the control. Vegetative attributes such as shoot length, shoot diameter, number of shoots per plant, and number of leaves per shoot were markedly enhanced by combined treatments. The maximum shoot length (142.69 cm), shoot diameter (0.98 cm), and number of leaves per shoot (45.86) were recorded with GA3 50 ppm + boron 0.4%. Fruit set, fruit number per shoot, fruit weight, and yield also improved significantly under combined treatments. GA3 50 ppm + boron 0.4% registered the highest fruit set (76.02%), fruit number (83.46/shoot), and yield (6.48 kg/plant and 99.73 q/ha). Similarly, physical attributes such as fruit diameter (1.08 cm) and volume (1.30 cc) were maximized under the same treatment. Biochemical constituents including TSS, sugars, and ascorbic acid content increased with GA3 and boron application, while titratable acidity decreased. The highest TSS (26.41%), total sugars (20.06%), and ascorbic acid (41.68 mg/100 g) were recorded with GA3 50 ppm + boron 0.4%. Overall, the combined application of GA3 50 ppm with boron 0.4% proved most effective in improving vegetative growth, yield, and fruit quality of phalsa.

Orchard productivity in almond trees is strongly influenced by rootstock selection, which plays a key role in floral induction and yield optimization. Although several rootstocks are commonly used in Iran, their comparative effects on floral induction in major commercial cultivars remain poorly understood. This study evaluated five Peach × Almond hybrid rootstocks (GN15, GF677, GN15-M, Shurab2, and Shurab3) grafted with two widely grown Iranian cultivars, Mamaee and Shahrud12, to investigate rootstock-scion interactions. These combinations were chosen based on their commercial importance and regional adaptability. A four-year factorial experiment (2021-2025) was conducted in a completely randomized design. Morphological traits, including flower number, blooming density, and vegetative growth, were measured alongside photosynthetic pigments and endogenous hormone profiles. Additionally, the expression of flowering-related genes was analyzed in leaf and bud tissues. Results revealed that Shurab3 significantly enhanced floral induction in both cultivars, with the Shurab3-Shahrud12 combination producing the highest flower number and bloom density. Shurab3 also outperformed GN15 in promoting flowering in Mamaee, whereas the GN15-Mamaee combination showed the lowest performance. Rootstocks GF677, GN15-M, and Shurab2 exhibited intermediate effects. Shurab3 combinations were further associated with higher chlorophyll content, increased indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and dynamic patterns of abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellic acid (GA3). Molecular analyses confirmed upregulation of FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT), CONSTANS (CO), SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CO 1 (SOC1), LEAFY (LFY), and APETALA1 (AP1) in Shurab3-Shahrud12, consistent with observed phenotypic improvements. Overall, these findings indicate that both rootstock and scion selection critically influence reproductive performance. Shurab3 emerges as a promising flower-inducing rootstock, providing practical guidance for optimizing orchard management and enhancing almond productivity under regional climatic conditions.

Orchard productivity in almond trees is strongly influenced by rootstock selection, which plays a key role in floral induction and yield optimization. Although several rootstocks are commonly used in Iran, their comparative effects on floral induction in major commercial cultivars remain poorly understood. This study evaluated five Peach × Almond hybrid rootstocks (GN15, GF677, GN15-M, Shurab2, and Shurab3) grafted with two widely grown Iranian cultivars, Mamaee and Shahrud12, to investigate rootstock–scion interactions. These combinations were chosen based on their commercial importance and regional adaptability. A four-year factorial experiment (2021–2025) was conducted in a completely randomized design. Morphological traits, including flower number, blooming density, and vegetative growth, were measured alongside photosynthetic pigments and endogenous hormone profiles. Additionally, the expression of flowering-related genes was analyzed in leaf and bud tissues. Results revealed that Shurab3 significantly enhanced floral induction in both cultivars, with the Shurab3–Shahrud12 combination producing the highest flower number and bloom density. Shurab3 also outperformed GN15 in promoting flowering in Mamaee, whereas the GN15–Mamaee combination showed the lowest performance. Rootstocks GF677, GN15-M, and Shurab2 exhibited intermediate effects. Shurab3 combinations were further associated with higher chlorophyll content, increased indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and dynamic patterns of abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellic acid (GA3). Molecular analyses confirmed upregulation of FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT), CONSTANS (CO), SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CO 1 (SOC1), LEAFY (LFY), and APETALA1 (AP1) in Shurab3–Shahrud12, consistent with observed phenotypic improvements. Overall, these findings indicate that both rootstock and scion selection critically influence reproductive performance. Shurab3 emerges as a promising flower-inducing rootstock, providing practical guidance for optimizing orchard management and enhancing almond productivity under regional climatic conditions.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), a vital global staple, suffers substantial yield losses under concurrent salinity and drought stress-two major constraints to sustainable agriculture and food security. This study, conducted at The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan, evaluated the individual and combined effects of gibberellic acid (GA3) and biochar (BC) on wheat performance under salinity (2.43 and 5.11 dSm⁻1) and drought stress (35% field capacity). A completely randomized design with sixteen treatment combinations was employed in triplicate. Compared with the stressed control (no amendments), the combined application of GA3 and BC significantly improved germination rate by 8.8% under salinity stress and by 8% under drought stress. Shoot and root lengths under salinity stress increased by 43% and 41%, respectively, and under drought stress by 34% and 30%. Shoot and root fresh weights were enhanced under salinity by 23% and 14%, respectively, and under drought stress by 12% and 3.3%. Relative water content increased under salinity from 52.49% to 61.26% and under drought from 62.54% to 66.96%. Total chlorophyll, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoid contents were also elevated, with carotenoids increasing by 39% under salinity and 85% under drought, reflecting improved photosynthetic efficiency and photoprotection. These findings demonstrate a synergistic effect of GA3 and BC in enhancing wheat tolerance to salinity and drought stress through improved water retention, pigment stability, and early seedling vigor. The integration of these eco-friendly amendments offers a promising, sustainable strategy to improve wheat resilience and productivity in stress-prone environments, contributing to long-term food security.

Cytokinin, gibberellin and auxin regulate parthenocarpy in cucumber via modulating downstream auxin signaling network.

Silicon (Si) is a relatively novel element that has found widespread application in various fields. Gibberellic acid (GA3) is known to induce different physiological traits in a variety of plants. While Si and GA₃ independently improve plant performance, their interactive mechanisms and potential synergy are poorly understood. In the present study, different treatments of GA3 (0, 10, 20, 50, 75 and 100ppm) and Si (50ppm) were applied as foliar and soil irrigation on sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L. cv. GT55) plants at specific time intervals, such as 60 and 90days. The result findings indicated that the application of foliar and soil irrigation containing GA3 and Si notably enhanced and/ or stabilized enzymatic and non-enzymatic activities, i.e., soluble protein, catalase, peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione reductase, hydrogen peroxide, lipid peroxidation, proline, ascorbate, glutathione, oxidized glutathione, glutathione-S-transferase, dehydroascorbate, and plant hormones, such as indole-3-acetic acid, abscissic acid, and gibberellic acid in sugarcane plant leaves and roots after foliar and soil irrigation application. The results showed that the interactive applications of GA3 and Si were not harmful to sugarcane plants, and positively affected their growth and development. The simultaneous application of Si and GA₃ is a safe and highly effective strategy to upregulate sugarcane growth and metabolic regulation. This innovative approach presents sustainable technology to enhance crop productivity and contribute to global food security goals without relying on conventional chemical inputs.

Impact of N-hexanoyl-DL-homoserine lactone priming on hormonal homeostasis in winter wheat.

Tomato m6A writers and erasers were identified genome-wide. Furthermore, their inhibition was found to affect seedling growth, and these genes respond to various stimuli, including PEG, MeJA, ABA, GA3, and SA. The balance between methylation and demethylation in N6-methyladenosine (m6A) determines the level of m6A modification in multiple species. The m6A modification is associated with abiotic stress and plant hormone responses. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate the bioinformatics and expression patterns of writer and eraser genes under these conditions. Here, we report the function of 7 writer genes (SlMTA, SlMTB1, SlMTB2, SlMTC, SlVIR, SlFIP37, SlHAKAI) and 8 eraser genes (SlALKBH1, SlALKBH2, SlALKBH6, SlALKBH7, SlALKBH8, SlALKBH9A, SlALKBH9B, SlALKBH9C). Phylogenetic analysis reveals the evolutionary relationships among the genes of the writers and erasers, providing the conservativeness of evolution. Analysis of cis-regulatory elements suggest that writers and erasers may be involved in stress or plant hormone process. Furthermore, pharmacological experiments using 3-deazaneplanocin A (3-DA) or meclofenamic acid (MA) have demonstrated that inhibition of m6A methylation or demethylation, suppresses the growth of tomato seedlings and regulates the expression of the writer and eraser genes. These findings suggesting that m6A methylation dynamics are involved in the plant's response to drought stress and plant hormone. Moreover, quantitative reverse transcription further confirmed the effects of polyethylene glycol (PEG), abscisic acid (ABA), methyl jasmonate (MeJA), gibberellic acid (GA3), and salicylic acid (SA) on the expression of writer and eraser genes. These results indicate that m6A modification plays an important role in the growth of tomato seedlings and is also associated with the plant's response to drought stress and ABA, MeJA, GA3, and SA.

Potential protective effect of phycocyanin against gibberellic acid-induced cerebellar toxicity in female rats and their offspring.

Genomic analysis reveals the interplay between ABA-GA in determining fresh seed dormancy in groundnut.

Effects of Urea, Zinc Sulfate, and Gibberellic Acid Applied via Trunk Injection on Productivity and Fruit Quality of 'Barhi' Date Palm.

Simmondsia chinensis, commonly known as jojoba, is an important renewable source of liquid wax esters valued for its unique seed oil that is used in several industries. Elite jojoba germplasm needs to be conserved owing to its overexploitation, climate variability and excessive dependence of selected cultivars. This study presents a straightforward and efficient droplet vitrification-based cryopreservation protocol in jojoba. Shoot tips isolated from eight-week-old cultures were cultured for two days on high sucrose (0.3M) enriched medium and then treated with loading solution containing 0.4M sucrose and 2M glycerol, followed by PVS2 exposure for 30min at room temperature. Vitrified shoot tips were then directly frozen in liquid nitrogen by placing them on aluminium foil strips. Frozen shoot tips were rewarmed in an unloading solution containing 1.2M sucrose for 15min, and then cultured on regeneration medium consisting of Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) supplemented with 4.97µM benzyl-amino purine (BAP) and 0.28 µM gibberellic acid (GA3). The protocol was optimized in one accession, where as high as 85.7% post-thaw survival and 76.1% regrowth were observed. The developed protocol was then tested for its efficacy and reproducibility on eleven other accession, and high post-thaw regrowth, ranging from 50 to 76.13% was observed. This study presents a broad spectrum, reproducible and efficient protocol for the conservation of jojoba genetic resources. This is the first report on cryopreservation of jojoba germplasm for its long-term conservation, providing a technical platform to set up cryobanks of valuable material of this important commercial crop.

Cymbidium eburneum Lindl. is a rare and threatened species of the family Orchidaceae. Its vivid, lively and fragrant flowers are in high demand in the commercial market. Due to mass exploitation and a slow rate of natural germination, the orchid’s population is declining and is in need of conservation. The study develops a protocol for in-vitro mass propagation of Cymbidium eburneum from immature seed pods using MS (Murashige and Skoog) basal media enhanced with or deprived of PGRs (plant growth regulators) – GA3 (Gibberellic acid), KIN (Kinetin), IBA (Indole-3-butyric acid) and NAA (Naphthalene acetic acid) in different combinations and proportions. Cultures treated with a combination of MS + GA3 (0.2mg/L) + 0.3mg/L KIN showed the optimum result for parameters such as seed germination, PLB formation, shoot proliferation and development, breadth of leaves, etc. Plant height, leaf length measured best in culture supplemented with 0.2mg/l GA3 to MS media. Further root initiation and development were best seen in the cultures when transferred to MS basal media enhanced with 0.2mg/L GA3 +0.3mg/L IBA. The length of the root measured longest when MS media was enhanced with 0.2mg/L NAA and diameter when MS basal medium was enhanced with 0.3mg/L IBA. For hardening the well-rooted plants, Vermiculite and Perlite were better options. This protocol will provide a viable solution in the conservation and mass commercial production of this rare orchid.

ABSTRACT Plant growth and stress regulation are tightly regulated by phytohormone signals which are jasmonic acid (JA) and gibberellic acid (GA). Antagonistic crosstalk between JA and GA signaling pathways is mediated by repressor proteins, including JASMONATE ZIM-DOMAIN PROTEINs (JAZ) in the JA and DELLA proteins in the GA. In rice (Oryza sativa), the interaction between OsJAZ9 and rice DELLA protein SLENDER RICE 1 (SLR1) has been identified as a key role in the antagonistic interplay between JA and GA. In this study, we generated transgenic rice lines constitutively overexpressing a truncated form of OsJAZ9 that retains the N-terminal ZIM domain but lacks the C-terminal Jas domain (OsJAZ9NZ-OE). We hypothesized that this construct could alter JAZ–DELLA interactions and thereby affect both JA- and GA-associated processes. OsJAZ9NZ-OE plants displayed increased plant height and improved recovery under drought stress. At the transcriptional level, OsbHLH148 and OsMYC2 (JA-associated) and OsWRKY71 (ABA/stress-associated), and the GA-related transcription factors OsPIL14 and OsPIL15 were all upregulated, indicating that OsJAZ9NZ influences a broad set of hormone-responsive pathways that coordinate growth and stress responses. These findings indicate that structural modification of OsJAZ9 alters JA–GA signaling balance and is associated with transcriptional reprogramming that affects both growth and drought tolerance. While further work is required to clarify the underlying mechanisms, OsJAZ9NZ provides a useful genetic tool to probe hormone crosstalk and may represent a promising genetic resource for crop improvement under environmental stress.

Submergence stress is a major abiotic factor that reduces the seedling establishment of rice. Gibberellic acid (GA) acts as a signal regulating anaerobic tolerance in rice, while seed priming is a pre-sowing treatment widely used to improve stress tolerance. However, whether and how GA seed priming affects rice seedling establishment under submergence stress remains unknown. In the present study, seeds of Oryza sativa L. cv. Xiangzaoxian45 were subjected to three treatments: no priming (NP), hydro-priming with distilled water (HP), and GA₃ priming (0.1 mM GA₃; GAP). Subsequent germination test was conducted under submergence (5cm of water) in growth chambers (25°C, 12-h photoperiod). Seedling establishment attributes, α-amylase activity, soluble sugar content, respiration rate, ATP content, respiratory enzyme activities, hormone levels, and gene expression in starch degradation, energy metabolism, and hormone biosynthesis pathways were measured. Results showed that GAP significantly promoted seed germination and seedling growth under submergence compared to NP and HP treatments. This improvement was attributed to higher GA₃ levels in rice seeds, resulting from both exogenous application during priming and the upregulation of GA biosynthesis genes (OsGA3ox1 and OsGA20ox1). Elevated GA₃ subsequently induced the expression of GA-responsive α-amylase genes (OsRamy1A, OsRamy3B, and OsRamy3E), thereby enhancing starch degradation, as evidenced by significantly increased α-amylase activity and total soluble sugar content. Furthermore, GAP enhanced the energy status of rice seedlings under submergence by increasing the oxygen consumption rate and ATP content and improved anaerobic respiration by elevating lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity and up-regulating OsLDH expression. However, GAP and HP did not differ significantly in regulating aerobic and anaerobic respiration under submergence. Moreover, principal component analysis, correlation analysis, and hierarchical partitioning analysis suggested a higher contribution of starch degradation than energy metabolism to seedling establishment under submergence stress. In summary, these findings indicate that GA priming enhances rice seedling establishment under submergence, and this improvement is predominantly attributed to GA-activated starch degradation.

Lemon peels are crucial quality traits and important sources of nutraceuticals. However, the regulation of peel development remains largely misunderstood. Here, we delved into the dynamic molecular mechanisms that control smooth lemon peel formation through transcriptomics and metabolomics analyses of developing peels at five different stages, including C1 (30 DAF, day after flowering), C2 (60 DAF), C3 (90 DAF), C4 (120 DAF), and C5 (150 DAF). Our analyses revealed that peel development is stage-specifically regulated, with the transition from stage C2 to stage C3 being the most critical period. Notably, major metabolic adjustments and transcriptional switches occurred between C2 and C3. Particularly, phytohormones and their related genes, flavonoids, terpenoids, phenolic acids, vitamin C, and citric acid were down-regulated at stage C3. Differentially expressed genes between the transition from C2 to C3 were mainly enriched in hydrolase activity, nucleic acid binding transcription, transcription factor activity, sequence-specific DNA binding and pathways such as plant hormone signal transduction, starch and sucrose metabolism, MAPK signaling pathway-plant, plant-pathogen interaction, and circadian rhythm-plant biosynthesis. Plant hormone signaling was crucial for peel development process. Specifically, we found that crosstalks between jasmonic acid, abscisic acid, salicylic acid, gibberellic acid, and ethylene dynamically and coordinately regulate peel development process. ABC transporter family genes and green-degrading promoting genes, including protein SGR1 (LOC18041639), ervatamin-C (LOC18051181), and many ethylene-responsive transcription factors were significantly induced from C2. Furthermore, we screened out stage-specific most regulated genes. Our findings offer molecular understanding of peel formation process and fundamental resources for the functional dissection of its regulatory networks and for genomics-assisted control of peel shape and fruit quality in lemon.

The use of seaweed or macroalgae as plant biostimulants has increased in recent years. This study discusses the effect of seasonal sea temperatures on the phytohormone and flavonoid contents, and the antioxidant activity of Acanthophora spicifera and Ulva intestinalis from Ecuador. For the extraction, aqueous digestion (AD), ethanol digestion (ED), ethanol sonication (ES), and methanol digestion (MD) were used. Metabolites and antioxidant activity were quantified by liquid chromatography and spectrophotometry. Multivariate analysis revealed that U. intestinalis exhibited enhanced flavonoid (up to 67.73 mg/kg) and phytohormone (up to 20.79 mg/kg) accumulation in the dry season, while the antioxidant capacity (TPC, TFC, DPPH, and FRAP) increased during the wet season. Conversely, A. spicifera showed a slight increase in phytohormone levels (up to 8.68 mg/kg) during the wet season, particularly in 3-indoleacetic acid, and gibberellic acid. These findings contribute first insights into antioxidant responses to seasonal changes.

This study evaluated the individual and combined effects of bio-fertilizers and bio-stimulants on bulb growth and yield of Tuberose. The experiment was conducted at the College of Horticulture, Mojerla, during the Rabi season of 2019–2020 under a factorial randomized completely block design with 25 treatment combinations and including one control. The experiment were consisted three bio-fertilizers (Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB), Azospirillum, and Potassium Solubilizing Bacteria (KSB)), four bio-stimulants (Gibberellic acid (GA₃), Salicylic acid (SA), Cycocel (CCC), and Humic acid (HA)) applied as foliar sprays at two concentrations each of the bio stimulants. The results revealed that both bio-fertilizers and bio-stimulants significantly influenced all bulb parameters. Among bio-fertilizers, PSB recorded the highest mean bulb yield (11.23 t/ha), bulb diameter (1.44 cm), and bulb weight (167.46 g). Among bio-stimulants, GA₃ at 400 ppm produced superior performance with the highest bulb yield (12.20 t/ha) and diameter (1.59 cm). The interaction effect (P × S) was also significant, with PSB + GA₃ 400 ppm (P₁S₂) recording the maximum bulb yield (12.99 t/ha). The improvement in bulb productivity may be attributed to enhanced nutrient solubilization, improved root proliferation, and stimulation of physiological processes such as cell elongation and assimilate translocation. The results showed that integrated application of PSB and GA₃ (400 ppm) is a viable and sustainable strategy for enhancing bulb yield and quality in tuberose cultivation.

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill) is a valuable medicinal plant from the Apiaceae family, cultivated for its essential oil, seeds, and leaves, which are used in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetics industries. This study tested the hypothesis that plant growth regulators (PGRs) positively modulate the morphological, physiological, and phytochemical properties of fennel. To test this hypothesis, a factorial experiment was carried out with foliar applications of four plant growth regulators, including salicylic acid (SA: 1 and 2 mM), gibberellic acid (GA: 0.25 and 0.5 mM), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA: 5 and 10 mM), and sodium nitroprusside (SNP: 1.25 and 2.5 mM). The results showed that SNP2.5 and GA0.5 treatments achieved the greatest improvement in growth and morphological traits. For the SNP2.5 treatment, morphological traits exhibited percentage changes ranging from 36.5 to 198.6%. SNP2.5 and SA2 treatments resulted in the highest values for physiological traits. The SNP2.5 treatment caused significant increases in flavonoid and phenolic contents, DPPH radical scavenging activity, and chlorophyll and carotenoid levels, with increases ranging from about 39% to 231% compared to the control. Meanwhile, SA (1 and 2 mM) and GA0.25 had superior effects on phytochemical traits, including essential oil yield and secondary metabolites. GABA10 also positively influenced all traits, though to a lesser extent than other treatments. Control plants consistently exhibited the lowest values across all traits. Metabolite analysis using GC-MS identified a total of 150 compounds, among which 41 showed significant differences among treatments. Notably, six major metabolites accounted for about 70% of the total metabolite content, including apiol (0.742–1.299), camphene hydrate (0.407–0.708), cis-anethole (0.328–0.975), estragole (0.916–1.059), phenyl acetate (5.005–9.705), and limonene (3.902–1.647) respectively for SA1 and SA2. Among these, cis-anethole (40–75%) and limonene (6.5–19%) were identified as the predominant components in the essential oil of the leaves. These findings suggest that certain plant growth regulators, especially SNP and SA, can be used as effective agricultural tools for improving the growth and phytochemical quality of fennel.

The cultivation of yellow pitahaya ( Hylocereus megalanthus ) is increasing in tropical regions due to its nutritional value and market potential. Yet, agronomic strategies integrating nutrient and hormonal regulation remain scarcely studied. This research evaluated the combined effect of potassium (K 2 O) and gibberellic acid (GA 3 ) on yield and fruit quality in field-grown pitahaya in the Peruvian Amazon using a 4 × 2 factorial randomized block design with four potassium doses (0, 50, 100, 150 kg ha⁻¹) and two GA 3 levels (0 and 50 mg L⁻¹). The combination of 100 kg K 2 O ha⁻¹ and 50 mg L⁻¹ GA 3 significantly improved fruit performance, with fruit weight (369.5 g), yield (12 t ha⁻¹), volume (322 cm³), and soluble solids (22.8°Brix), while acidity decreased (pH 4.87 vs. 4.55 in the control). Potassium alone had a limited impact on fruit weight per plant, but under GA 3 application, a quadratic response was evident, with maximum values between 100–110 kg K ha⁻¹. Multivariate analyses confirmed that yield gains were driven by increases in fruit size and quality, with fertilized treatments clearly separated from controls. These findings demonstrate a synergistic interaction between potassium and GA 3 , providing a basis for precision fertilization protocols that enhance yield and quality in high-value tropical fruit systems.