Academic self-efficacy is a critical psychological construct influencing learners’ motivation, persistence, and achievement in foreign language learning; however, empirical evidence in secondary-level EFL contexts remains limited. This study investigated the effects of gamification on the academic self-efficacy of Grade 12 students learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in public secondary schools in Chonburi Province, Thailand. Employing a mixed-methods explanatory sequential design, the study first adopted a quasi-experimental pre-test–post-test approach, followed by focus group interviews to gain in-depth insights into students’ learning experiences. A total of 83 students participated, with 42 assigned to an experimental group receiving instruction integrated with Duolingo for Schools and 41 assigned to a control group receiving traditional instruction. Quantitative data were analyzed using paired-sample and independent-sample t-tests. The results revealed a statistically significant improvement in academic self-efficacy among students in the experimental group, with mean scores increasing from 2.85 (SD = 0.45) to 4.10 (SD = 0.35), while the control group obtained a lower post-test mean score of 3.40 (SD = 0.40) (p < .01). Qualitative findings corroborated the quantitative results, indicating that the gamified learning environment promoted engagement, motivation, and autonomous learning through features such as immediate feedback, progress tracking, and game-based challenges. The findings suggest that gamification, when systematically integrated into formal EFL instruction, can significantly enhance students’ academic self-efficacy. This study provides empirical support for the pedagogical value of gamified learning environments and offers practical implications for educators and policymakers seeking to strengthen learner engagement and psychological readiness in secondary-level EFL classrooms.

ABSTRACT Learners' engagement is crucial in educational achievement, especially in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning, in which psychological sources and motivation are vital. Within the changing perspective of online teaching, maintaining students' engagement in AI‐supported settings offers mental difficulties and opportunities. Based on the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory and Positive Psychology (PP), the present research examines the effect of Psychological Capital (PsyCap) for predicting EFL students' engagement indirectly and directly by the mediating effect of ER. To this end, 328 college learners in China who had registered in AI‐supported EFL classes participated in the research. Data collection was done through valid self‐report tools and analysed utilising structural equation modelling to unravel the particular and general contributions of PsyCap and ER to students' engagement. The results revealed that both PsyCap and ER emerged as significant predictors of engagement, with ER being the strongest general predictor, uniquely accounting for 10.9% of the variance in engagement scores. Collectively, the general and specific factors explained 52.9% of the variance in engagement, underscoring the substantial role of psychological resources and ER in fostering students' engagement in AI‐supported EFL contexts. Moreover, a significant part of the relationship between PsyCap and engagement is shared by ER. The study offers theoretical contributions to the understanding of PsyCap within AI‐enhanced education and provides practical implications for designing interventions that support learner well‐being and motivation in digitally mediated EFL classrooms.

Microsystem components and EFL achievement in adolescence: A network analysis.

Textbooks play a pivotal role in fostering English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ language proficiency. Among the various skills addressed in English language teaching (ELT) materials, reading comprehension is widely regarded as an essential component for improving learners’ linguistic knowledge. Typically, reading passages are followed by a series of activities designed both to assess students’ understanding and to enhance their ability to interpret, analyze, and engage more deeply with the text. Although a substantial body of literature has examined the cognitive demands of EFL instructional content, relatively little attention has been devoted to analyzing second language reading comprehension questions and task types. To fill this lacuna, this study examined the representation of post-reading comprehension questions and tasks using Freeman’s taxonomy across nine Iranian high school English language textbooks from three successive generations in the history of ELT in Iran. The post-reading comprehension questions and tasks in each textbook were analyzed and categorized using a descriptive content analysis approach. The findings indicated that the Content category was the most prevalent across all three generations, followed by the Language and Affect categories. In addition, Generation 2 textbooks contained the highest overall frequency of post-reading comprehension question types, except for the Form question type, which occurred most frequently in Generation 1 textbooks. Across all nine textbooks analyzed, the Explicit question type emerged as the most commonly used, whereas the Evaluation question type was the least represented. The results of the chi-square tests also revealed significant differences among the three generations in terms of the frequency of different question types. The findings have several practical implications for policy makers, material writers, and English teachers.

ABSTRACT Artificial Intelligence (AI) significantly affects professional and individual domains, underscoring the importance of learners having a basic understanding of AI. Making learners ready to work alongside AI remains a complex objective. Building on existing Positive Psychology (PP) research, this research emphasizes the importance of external elements like teacher support and internal elements such as self‐efficacy in influencing learners' well‐being and engagement. As a result, this research examines the correlation between English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners' perceived teacher support and self‐efficacy to predict their well‐being and engagement in AI‐enhanced learning settings. This investigation offers valuable perspectives on how teacher support can be utilized to enhance learning results in AI‐enhanced settings. The research tackles these shortcomings by analysing how these factors interact and impact learners' results, highlighting their roles in fostering well‐being and engagement. To reach this aim, 385 learners attended and answered the four scales but among them, 353 questionnaires were valid. These findings revealed that both efficacy and teacher support were significant predictors of engagement, jointly predicting 53.6% of its variance in AI‐enhanced settings. They were also significant predictors of well‐being, jointly explaining 24.6% of the variance. In both cases, efficacy showed a higher beta value, indicating that it is the best predictor of both engagement and well‐being. The findings suggest that an effective approach that integrates teacher support, self‐efficacy enhancement tasks, and AI tools creates a favourable learning setting that deals with both cognitive and emotional aspects. The research concludes with implications and suggestions for subsequent studies.

With the growing emphasis on positive psychology, the well-being of foreign language (FL) learners has become a key area of focus. However, existing well-being scales are typically designed for the general population, and a scale specifically tailored to the unique experiences and challenges faced by FL learners is still lacking. To address this gap, the present study aimed to develop and validate a well-being scale specifically tailored for FL learners. Using a mixed-methods design, the study involved 1,182 secondary school students in China, with an average age of 14.14 years ( SD = 1.21) and spanning grades 7–12. Grounded in the positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment well-being model, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis confirmed an 18-item FL learner well-being scale. This five-factor scale, including FL positive emotion, FL engagement, FL interpersonal support, FL learning value, and FL accomplishment, demonstrated robust psychometric properties with high internal consistency and split-half reliability, as well as strong convergent, discriminant, and criterion validity. Furthermore, as evidence of criterion-related validity, this study revealed a significant negative correlation between FL learner well-being and FL anxiety, alongside a strong positive association with teacher–student relationships (TSRs). These findings not only provide a reliable tool for assessing FL learner well-being, but also offer empirical support for interventions that aim to enhance student well-being by fostering positive TSRs and reducing FL anxiety.

How Chinese as a foreign language learners use generative AI for oral script-writing: A qualitative perspective on cognitive scaffolding in project-based learning.

Empirical evidence on the effectiveness of game-based digital tools in foreign language vocabulary learning and long-term vocabulary retention in the university setting remains limited. This study aims to investigate the effect of Kahoot!, a game-based digital tool, on vocabulary learning and retention among English as a foreign language (EFL) learners in a university preparatory class. The study also aims to obtain student views and perspectives on the vocabulary learning experience with Kahoot!. Using a mixed-method design, this study was conducted with the participation of 43 university students, 21 in the experimental group and 22 in the control group. Data were collected through pre-tests, post-tests and delayed retention tests and analyzed using independent sample t-tests and Mann-Whitney U test. In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 21 students who participated in the experimental process to obtain student views and perspectives on the vocabulary learning experience with Kahoot! and these findings were presented within the framework of comprehensive thematic analysis. The results revealed that while both groups showed improvement in vocabulary acquisition, the experimental group showed statistically significantly higher success rates at the large effect level (η² = 0.23) and significantly higher retention rates at the large effect level (η² = 0.20) compared to the control group (p < .05). According to qualitative findings, Kahoot! application increases student motivation by increasing vocabulary learning success and retention, and encourages active participation, cooperation and competition by providing an interactive and fun learning environment.

Interplay of mindfulness, motivation, and self-regulation in predicting L2 achievement: A mixed-methods study.

Tension or harmony? Unpacking the language, multilingual and national identities of foreign language learners in China

The Use of Quizlet to Enhance English as a Foreign Language Learners’ Lexical Study and Retention

In educational settings, theory and practice of foreign language (FL) learning have been dominated by a cognitive output-driven notion of an ostensibly quantifiable “efficiency” of FL learning. The concepts of enaction and embodiment challenge the conventional view of language learning by positing that the learner's organism endows components of the environment with specific meaningfulness, and the environment provides the organism with specific affordances, activating modality-specific brain areas. Hence, cognitive learning processes can no longer be understood as linear input-output functions for accumulating information in the brain but must involve the sensory and motor capacities of learners' bodies. Action-oriented foreign language learning scenarios mobilize preverbal (inter)corporeal experiences, which are actually lived through in multisensorial and multimodal experiences. Whereas methodologies promoting bodily activation emphasize learners becoming more attuned to the foreign language-framed eco-social environment and its semiotic resources, they tend to overlook the aspect of the learner's immaterial lived body and its pre-reflective resonances with and responses to actually experiencing the FL and its manifestations which is vital for connecting subjective corporeal memories to the FL learning process. What was corporeally sensed as striking resonances can be made explicit through attentiveness and reflective verbal explication. Conversely, learned items appear to be more meaningful to the learner when the situated affective background shines through. Since language is a form of embodied sociality, the objective for FL learners is to incorporate the foreign language as an integrated semiotic repertoire for sociocultural behavior through body mobilization and enhanced attentiveness to the preverbal resonances and responses of their lived body.

We studied Japanese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ cognitive processes when reading two texts and answering intratext or intertext questions, a format that demands attention toward discrete pieces of information across texts. In Experiment 1, 38 Japanese undergraduate and graduate students read 16 pairs of short texts and answered comprehension questions with four options each. Their eye movements were recorded, which was followed by post-reading interviews. Experiment 2 involved a think-aloud protocol study with 30 Japanese EFL learners. We found that cognitive processes in multiple-text reading largely overlapped across the question types. However, the intertext questions led participants to read more evenly, avoiding reliance on specific answer-related sentences. Questions identifying similarities between texts prompted deeper engagement and utilization of test-taking strategies compared to those detecting differences. The question-answering processes were consistent regardless of whether the participants answered each question correctly. However, those who responded inaccurately tended to frequently return to the texts. Through multiple rounds of data collection, we found that the question answering processes involved in multiple-text reading in a second language were consistent regardless of question type, but intertext questions were effective for eliciting readers’ knowledge of the text structure, one of the higher-level strategies.

This special issue of NJLTL comprises contributions from researchers and practitioners engaged in foreign language teaching and learning in higher education – both within a Nordic context and beyond. Due to the large number of contributions received, the special issue will be published in two parts. The first part is scheduled for publication at the end of 2025, with the second part due to appear in Spring 2026. The first part includes 6 research contributions in the main section and 8 articles in the forum section. The articles, which focus on teaching and/or learning English, French, German, and Spanish as foreign languages, are written in Danish, English, Norwegian, and German.

How foreign language curiosity and shyness shape learning engagement, with emotions as mediating roles.

Introduction English-speaking proficiency is essential for the personal and academic development of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners; however, many students demonstrate limited willingness to communicate (WTC) in classroom settings. Although generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) offers considerable potential for enhancing communicative engagement, existing research has predominantly examined WTC in human-to-human interactions, leaving the applicability of established models in AI-mediated environments uncertain. Method To address this gap, the present study, guided by self-determination theory, explores the structural relationships among learning grit, speaking self-efficacy, speaking enjoyment, speaking anxiety, and WTC with GenAI. Questionnaire data were collected from 350 Chinese undergraduate EFL learners who practiced oral English using GenAI, and were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM). Results and discussion Findings indicate a robust nomological network, with speaking self-efficacy identified as the most influential direct and mediating predictor of WTC with GenAI. Learning grit exerts both direct and indirect effects, while speaking enjoyment and anxiety have comparatively modest impacts. These results suggest that self-efficacy and grit are fundamental psychological drivers of communicative action in GenAI contexts, whereas affective states play a supplementary role. The study extends current WTC frameworks to technology-mediated settings and highlights pedagogical implications for fostering self-belief and perseverance in digital language education.

Enhancing learners' social skills in EFL classrooms: The role of collaborative writing instruction.

This research examines students' perceptions of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL), focusing on their views regarding its benefits and challenges. Conducted at the English Language Education Study Program, Tarbiyah Faculty, IAIN Parepare, this study involved 30 students selected through random sampling to ensure generalizability. A qualitative approach was employed, utilizing structured interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) to gather insights into students’ experiences with AI tools such as Elsa Speak, Duolingo, and Google Assistant. Data were analyzed thematically to identify recurring themes and key perspectives. The findings revealed that students perceive AI as both advantageous and limiting in their EFL learning journey. On the positive side, AI was seen as increasing motivation, boosting confidence in speaking, and providing practical opportunities for self-directed learning. However, students also expressed concerns regarding overreliance on AI tools, decreased creativity in language production, and AI's inability to adapt to individual learning styles and personalities. Additionally, some participants worried about AI’s potential impact on future job opportunities. The study concludes that while students generally view AI as a valuable aid in EFL learning, they recognize the need for a balanced approach. Educators and learners should integrate AI with traditional learning methods to enhance effectiveness while minimizing its limitations. Future research should further explore students' long-term perceptions of AI and its role in diverse EFL learning contexts.

Developing writing skills is a central goal for English as a Foreign Language learners, yet large class sizes frequently limit instructors’ ability to provide timely and individualized Written Corrective Feedback. This study investigated how receiving corrective feedback from ChatGPT, compared with instructor feedback, influences Saudi English learners’ writing motivation and their experiences and perceptions in paragraph writing. The significance of the study lies in clarifying how AI-mediated feedback may support learners’ autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as conceptualized by Self-Determination Theory. An explanatory sequential mixed-methods design was adopted. Survey data from 52 preparatory-year students were analyzed descriptively, and interview data from 13 participants were examined through content analysis to identify themes related to motivation and feedback experiences. Findings revealed that learners valued ChatGPT’s immediacy and personalized explanations, and reported improvements in sentence structure, vocabulary use, and organization. Concerns about accuracy and occasional irrelevance persisted, and participants emphasized the continued importance of instructor guidance. The study concludes with the recommendation that ChatGPT be integrated as a complementary feedback tool to enhance writing development while maintaining teacher oversight to ensure accuracy and pedagogical appropriateness

Artificial intelligence (AI)-based language learning tools have become a groundbreaking innovation, delivering tailored learning experiences that adapt to each learner’s specific needs, offering immediate feedback, and creating immersive environments for language practice. These technologies are hailed for their ability to reshape conventional language learning methods by increasing student engagement, alleviating anxiety, and promoting positive changes in learning behaviors. This study examines the role of AI tutors in reducing anxiety and enhancing motivation among English as a foreign language (EFL) learners of Chinese. A mixed-methods design was employed, integrating both quantitative and qualitative data. A total of 134 participants from a higher education institution in China completed AI-Language Learning Effectiveness Scale (AILLES) to assess engagement, motivation, anxiety, and feedback during AI-assisted language learning. Additionally, semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten participants to capture in-depth insights into their learning experiences. The results showed significant positive correlations between AI learning effectiveness and motivation and between learning behavior and AI effectiveness. This study also revealed that AI tutors promoted more consistent study habits, increased motivation, and reduced anxiety by offering a non-judgmental, personalized learning experience. However, some expressed concerns about over-reliance on AI. Overall, the findings suggest that AI tutors can significantly improve EFL learners’ language acquisition by fostering a more engaging and anxiety-free learning environment. This study contributes to the growing body of research on AI in education, highlighting the potential of AI tutors to reduce anxiety, improve motivation, and foster effective language learning outcomes.