European Commission Research Articles

SSS Algorithms for Max-Cut

The subgraph sampling scheme (SSS) is a technique originally introduced for Markov random fields. It is a powerful tool for designing heuristic algorithms for max-cut, quadratic unconstrained binary optimization (QUBO), and other optimization problems. The first application of SSS in combinatorial optimization, combined with dynamic programming, is in Selby’s heuristic. This algorithm is shown to outperform quantum annealing for solving max-cut problems on chimera graphs. Leveraging SSS, we introduce two new algorithms. One is designed to handle general graphs, whereas the other is specifically tailored for toroidal grid graphs. To assess the effectiveness of these algorithms, we conducted a comprehensive evaluation. We used the same methodology, test bed, and set of 37 well-established heuristics for max-cut and QUBO problems as described in a recent study of Dunning, Gupta, and Silberholz. Notably, all three SSS-based algorithms consistently achieve top rankings in terms of performance. History: Accepted by Andrea Lodi, Area Editor for Design & Analysis of Algorithms–Discrete. Funding: This work was supported by the funding program Horizon 2020 - Excellent Science - Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions of the European Commission (Grant MINOA- Mixed-Integer Non-Linear Optimization Applications/764759]. Supplemental Material: The software that supports the findings of this study is available within the paper and its Supplemental Information ( https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/suppl/10.1287/ijoc.2024.0812 ) as well as from the IJOC GitHub software repository ( https://github.com/INFORMSJoC/2024.0812 ). The complete IJOC Software and Data Repository is available at https://informsjoc.github.io/ .

The Role of Standards in Teaching How to Design Machine Elements

This paper introduces arguments in favor of the intensive use of standards in both teaching the Machine Elements discipline and solving the first projects of mechanical design (gearboxes, jacks, pumps, tanks, etc.). The paper presents a SWOTT approach to the use of new in-force standards in teaching the design of machine elements. The use of information from standards in courses and design handbooks is regulated by various standardization associations at different levels internationally, such as the ISO (International Organization of Standardization), IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission), and ITU (International Telecommunication), and regional associations such as the CEN (European Commission for Standardization), CENELEC (European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization) and ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute), and national associations (for instance, the ASRO—Association of Standardization of Romania). In general, the conditions for using partial information from standards vary, but the authors present common lines and recommendations for introducing information from standards in books and design handbooks for engineering students. The use of information from standards for terms, materials, calculation models, test methods etc. is beneficial for students. This will provide them a good professional education towards adapting to a specific job in the field of mechanical engineering, where conformity to norms and standards is required by the dynamics of production, product quality and, not least, the safety of machines and operators.

Environmental footprint in specific industries: intellectual base and research status

Environmental footprint (EF) as a critical tool for assessing the environmental impacts of human activities has been widely applied in the sustainable development field. Building upon a review of the current research landscape, this study employs bibliometric analysis to identify the intellectual base of EF research through co-citation networks and to outline research status. Following the release of the European Commission EF framework, the research primarily focused on the development and standardization of the product and organization EF methods, and then expanded to global environmental governance frameworks, such as the circular economy and planetary boundaries, promoting multi-scale environmental impact assessment tools. The enhancement of databases and the increasing emphasis on uncertainty analysis in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Multi-regional Input-output models have enhanced the comparability of assessments. EF research has expanded into sectors such as food systems, healthcare, information and communication technology, pharmaceuticals, batteries, and plastics, offering both theoretical and empirical support for green transitions and environmental performance optimization across sectors. Using metals, healthcare, and construction as cases, this study highlights the shared features and distinct characteristics of EF application across sectors. In the metals sector, research addresses both primary extraction and recycling, with inconsistent treatment of uncertainty. Healthcare studies focus mainly on devices and consumables, with limited attention to hospitals, departments, and treatment pathways. In construction, studies cover materials, structures, firms, and technologies, mostly using LCA, but often lack systematic uncertainty analysis. Future direction could further integrate EF with the planetary boundaries framework and circular economy strategies, improve dynamic modeling in methodological robustness, and broaden application to emerging fields such as hydrogen energy, cryptocurrency mining, cloud computing, and digital infrastructure.

CFC Rules (Model B): No Compensation for Foreign Taxes Needed According to Advocate General Kokott

In 2023, the European Commission stated that the (former) Belgian CFC rules were the result of an incomplete transposition of the EU Anti-Tax Avoidance Directive (2016/1164) (ATAD). The Belgian legislator refused to grant a tax credit under the Model B rules for the foreign tax paid by a CFC in the interests of better protection of the Belgian tax base and since the ATAD only provides for minimum harmonization. In her Opinion of 22 May 2025, Advocate General Kokott confirmed the Belgian reasoning.

Rethinking Fashion

Well-being has traditionally been measured through economic growth and the accumulation of wealth, often neglecting the limitations imposed by natural resources (Latouche et al., 2011). The current economic model overlooks the principles of the circular economy, which are increasingly undermined by anthropogenic phenomena such as global warming. Additionally, growing geopolitical instability is weakening conventional governance systems (Sachs, 2015). Within this context, the European Commission’s “Safe and Sustainable by Design” (SSbD) framework (2022), aligned with the objectives of the European Green Deal, promotes a systemic approach that integrates safety, sustainability, and functionality. It aims to reduce the use of hazardous chemicals and minimize environmental impacts throughout the entire life cycle of products and processes. There is an urgent need to rethink production systems through a “reparative, regenerative, and restorative” economic model (Sbordone et al., 2022), which transcends the limits of the circular economy by prioritizing biological cycles and the bioeconomy (Fava, 2022; Giampietro, 2024). The Quintuple Helix model contributes to redefining relationships among stakeholders, placing natural capital at the center (Carayannis et al., 2012). In this scenario, design intrinsically connected to life plays a critical role in re-establishing sustainable relationships between humans and the environment (Antonelli, 2012), particularly in the fashion and textile sectors, by fostering locally grounded initiatives focused on repair, regeneration, and territorial enhancement.

New Multipolarity in Contemporary European Union’s Foreign Policy Discourse

Amid the ongoing qualitative transformation of the international system, the leaders of the European Union go beyond day-to-day political agenda, attempting to describe the emerging global geopolitical landscape. The article explores the vision of the contemporary world order and the EU’s role in it as released by its officials. The analysis of the EU’s official discourse provides insight into the ideas that shape Brussels’ policy of adaptation to the changing environment, and allows to identify the theory that best explains the EU’s foreign policy trajectory. Methodologically the article is based on statements made by senior EU officials in 2023-2024, e.g., High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy Josep Borrell, President of the European Commission Ursula von der Leyen, etc. In describing the world as multipolar, EU leaders attend to different aspects of today's multipolarity. The analysis shows that systemic geopolitical pressure exerts significant impact on the EU’s foreign policy and positioning, therefore purely endogenous approaches are insufficient for a comprehensive study of the Union’s actorness. The discourse combines elements of realist and normative logics. On the one hand, Brussels address the balance of power and various dimensions of security. On the other hand, it projects common values, multilateralism, and partnership. Debates about the EU’s actorness seem more fruitful if they imply convergence of different theories: deep understanding of global dynamic and intra-European specifics, as well as normative and strategic behavioral logics.

Interlaboratory investigation of NIAS with non-targeted methods: need for harmonisation

Non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) pose significant challenges in the analysis of food contact materials, particularly due to the lack of standardised screening methodologies. This study presents an interlaboratory investigation comparing the efficacy of headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), GC-MS/FID, and liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-(HR)MS) in identifying and quantifying NIAS. In total 13 participating laboratories were requested to apply their in-house commercial method to analyse a plastic laminate. Migration in Tenax and 50% ethanol and extraction were requested. Results revealed inconsistencies across the laboratories, primarily attributable to variations in analytical techniques, analytical standards selected, libraries used, and reporting practices. Notably, improved consistency was observed when aligned methodologies were employed, highlighting the necessity for standardisation in non-targeted screening processes. The findings suggest that a method to achieve consistent results below 0.1 mg/kg food may be more difficult to achieve making it challenging to meet the requirements from the recent European Commission Regulation 2025/351 on purity criteria. This highlights a critical need for harmonised approaches to enhance the reliability of NIAS screening.

Scientific reflection on the European Commission's Vision for Agriculture and Food.

In February 2025, the European Commission announced its Vision for Agriculture and Food for the next five years and beyond. The Vision builds on the Strategic Dialogue on the Future of EU Agriculture, a process that brought together key stakeholders from across Europe. The Strategic Dialogue report is substantially more ambitious than the Commission's Vision. The latter lacks a food systems approach, which can hamper an integrated, sustainable transition. As scientists, we stand ready to work with the Commission, and other stakeholders, to provide evidence and analysis to ensure Europe's food system works for the health of people and the planet.

The contribution of medically assisted reproduction to total, age-, and parity-specific fertility in Italy.

What is the contribution of medically assisted reproduction (MAR) to total, age-, and parity-specific fertility in Italy? MAR contributed 3.7% to Italy's total fertility rate in 2022 and 5.9% to fertility of first order; MAR's contribution to fertility reached 16% among women aged 40 + and 31% among women aged 40 + at first birth. Demography, particularly via postponement of the age at childbearing for both women and men, plays a role in the diffusion of MAR techniques, and the diffusion of MAR techniques may contribute to postpone the age at childbearing. Recent studies found that the contribution of MAR to fertility rates is remarkable and increases over time in countries such as Czech Republic, Denmark, Australia, and the USA. Italy is a country distinguished by one of the lowest average number of children per woman globally, as well as the highest maternal age at first birth and among the highest shares of births to mothers aged 40years and over in Europe. No prior study has focused on Italy. This study relies on a unique combination of administrative data sources: the Certificate of Delivery Care Registry dataset based on the entire population of live birth deliveries in Italy in 2022 (N = 393997), administered by the Ministry of Health; the Register of Live Births to the Resident Population in 2022 (N = 393333), administered by the Italian National Institute of Statistics; and the resident population by age and sex to identify the female population at risk of having a(n additional) child by age (N = 17006665) provided by the Italian National Institute of Statistics. Comparisons are made with the year 2013. We calculate the age-specific fertility rates (total and by parity) for births conceived via MAR and those conceived naturally. These rates are then utilized to assess the contribution of MAR to total and parity-specific fertility, as well as to the mean maternal age at childbearing. This study is the first estimation of its kind for Italy. The contribution of MAR to the total fertility rate (for women aged 15-59years) in Italy increased from 2.1% in 2013 to 3.7% in 2022. Among women aged 40 + , the contribution of MAR to the total fertility rate increases to 16.2% in 2022, up from 8.6% in 2013. The contribution of MAR to first-order fertility rate increases to 5.9% and it reaches 30.9% among women aged 40-59years in 2022. The mean age at first childbirth among women who conceived via MAR equals to 37.8, up from 36.0 in 2013, compared to those who conceived naturally at a mean age at first birth of 30.4 in 2013 and of 31.3 in 2022. Our approach may underestimate MAR's contribution to the total fertility rate in Italy: mothers in Italy may be more likely to under-report of MAR-births than in other countries, due to social norms that are more resistant to non-conventional paths to parenthood. Our estimates use unconstrained denominators based on the entire population of women in reproductive age, irrespective of parity, to compute fertility rates because the population of women by age and parity is not available from official statistics. In addition, our estimates are somewhat affected by the possibility that couples who underwent MAR treatment would have eventually conceived spontaneously. Countries characterized by low and late fertility offer a unique test ground for studying the contribution of MAR to fertility rates. In Italy, a late transition to parenthood among the general population aligns with the late transition to parenthood among mothers who conceived via MAR, mirroring that they seek infertility treatments at a relatively late age. For Italy, it will be important to monitor MAR's contribution to fertility as a new law came into effect in January 2025, that, by recognizing infertility as a pathology, considerably reduces treatment costs hence likely increases demand for MAR. The extent to which a potentially increased demand will translate into access to treatment is uncertain if additional resources are not made available to expand the health system to meet the expected increased demand. We acknowledge funding from Next Generation EU, in the context of the National Recovery and Resilience Plan, Investment PE8-Project Age-It: 'Ageing Well in an Ageing Society' (DM 1557 11.10.2022) and the project 'ALFA-Aligning Law with Family Arrangements' funded by Fondazione Cariplo 2021-1321. Open access funding provided by University of Trento within the CRUI-CARE agreement. The views and opinions expressed are only those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Commission. Neither the European Union nor the European Commission can be held responsible for them. No conflict of interest exists. N/A.

Safety of magnesium orotate dihydrate as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 and bioavailability of magnesium from this source in the context of Directive 2002/46/EC

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) was asked to deliver an opinion on the safety of magnesium orotate dihydrate as a novel food (NF) pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 and to address the bioavailability of magnesium from this source in the context of Directive 2002/46/EC. The NF is produced by chemical synthesis and is proposed to be used in food supplements at a maximum intake level of 6100 mg per day by adults. This intake level corresponds to around 5000 mg/day orotic acid and 400 mg/day magnesium. The Panel notes that this would exceed the established UL for supplemental magnesium of 250 mg/day, therefore the use of the NF could be nutritionally disadvantageous. The Panel also notes the previous safety assessment of magnesium orotate dihydrate, where concerns were raised regarding the exposure to orotic acid, based on several animal studies demonstrating tumour‐promoting effects. The ANS Panel derived a no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) for orotic acid of 50 mg/kg bw per day. The margin between the derived NOAEL for orotic acid and the exposure resulting from the proposed maximum use level of the NF is 0.7 (based on the average bw of an adult person of 70 kg) which is even lower than the margin considered by the ANS Panel of being inadequate. The applicant has not provided any toxicological data on the NF or on orotic acid that could address or mitigate these safety concerns. The Panel concludes that the safety of the NF, magnesium orotate dihydrate, cannot be established under the proposed conditions of use. The assessment of bioavailability of magnesium from the NF in comparison to natural sources was not conducted.

Intercultural education and linguistic and cultural diversity: navigating the tension between policy and grassroots implementation in schools

Abstract Over the years, cultural and linguistic diversity in schools across Europe has significantly increased due to migration and refugee flows. In response, international organizations, such as the Council of Europe and the European Commission, advocate intercultural education as both an educational strategy and a social policy tool to foster inclusion, address inequality, and build cohesive societies. This study contributes to the intercultural education literature by addressing an underexplored area: the process of translating intercultural policies into school practices. Using Street-Level Bureaucracy theory and qualitative research in Trento, Italy, it highlights the mechanisms and challenges shaping teachers’ practices and the extent of the policy–practice gap. Furthermore, the research also contributes to the Street-Level Bureaucracy theory. It shows that teachers can act as innovators in the policy implementation process. By engaging civil society members, notably students and members of migrant communities, as co-implementers, teachers reshape policy ecosystems through participatory and bottom-up approaches.

Assessment of the 2024 post‐market monitoring report of genetically modified oilseed rape 73496

Following a request from the European Commission (EC), the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) analysed the 2024 post‐market monitoring (PMM) report of genetically modified oilseed rape (OSR) 73496 and the additional information provided during the assessment. EFSA concluded that the assumptions for consumption and for the intended uses considered during the pre‐market risk assessment (human and animal dietary exposure) remain valid. The authorisation holder did not provide consumption data for humans and animals of OSR 73496 and of products derived from OSR 73496 as requested in the authorisation. However, EFSA concluded that the methodology used and the information provided is sufficient to conclude that the conditions considered during the pre‐market risk assessment are still applicable.

EU regulation: An unprecedented opportunity to protect children's and wildlife health from the toxic effects of lead ammunition.

Lead is highly toxic to humans and other animals; thus, many uses have been restricted. One exception is lead ammunition, which remains a source of dietary exposure to humans and wildlife. In February 2025, the European Commission published draft regulations for habitat-wide lead ammunition restrictions to protect wildlife and human, particularly children's, health. These require approval under EU processes. Under EU regulation, Maximum Levels (MLs) for lead have been set for most marketed meats to protect human health, but, surprisingly, no ML has been set for lead in game meat: Here we describe research that supports the urgent need for this. We recommend both approval of the proposed EU ban on lead ammunition use and the setting of MLs for lead in game meat as a complementary measure to aid monitoring and encourage transition to lead-free ammunition globally. These long-overdue measures would protect both children's and wildlife health.

Gender bias in machine learning: insights from official labour statistics and textual analysis

Abstract The interplay between technology and societal norms often reveals a troubling reality: machine learning systems not only reflect existing gender stereotypes but can also amplify and entrench them, making these biases harder to detect and address. This paper adopts an interdisciplinary approach, combining quantitative and qualitative methods with recent technological advancements, such as machine learning techniques for textual analysis and computational linguistics, to offer a new framework for understanding occupational gender bias in machine learning. The study is motivated by persistent gender inequalities in the labour market and rising concerns about gendered algorithmic bias, as outlined in the European Commission’s Gender Equality Strategy 2020–2025. Focusing on language translation technologies, the research explores how machine learning may perpetuate or amplify gender stereotypes, aiming to foster more inclusive digital systems aligned with EU strategic goals. More specifically, it investigates occupational gender segregation and its manifestations in various forms of gender bias in machine learning across English, French, and Greek. The study introduces a classification of gender biases in machine learning, providing insights into professional areas needing intervention to address gender imbalances and identifying enduring stereotypical representations in textual data. To support this, statistical analysis is conducted to explore gender variations in occupations over the past thirteen years, using official data and international classifications such as the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-08). Moreover, gendered occupational distributions are extracted from 200,920 text instances in the three languages, revealing significant discrepancies between official labour statistics and the training data.

Environmental Concerns in the Fashion Industry: A Twin Transition With the Digital Product Passport

ABSTRACTThe fashion industry exerts a significant impact on ecosystems, prompting consumers to seek sustainable solutions and companies to adapt their production processes to minimize environmental harm. The digital product passport (DPP) may play an important role in facilitating the twin green and digital transitions. Proposed by the European Commission, the DPP aims to enhance the sustainability and traceability of products throughout their life cycle, and the recent literature reflects a growing scholarly interest in this initiative. The present paper presents the findings of an online survey conducted in Italy with a sample of 549 participants, exploring consumer perceptions regarding digital device knowledge, purchasing habits, and environmental and economic considerations. The results show a general lack of familiarity with the DPP but a strong confidence in digital labels as tools for enhancing corporate transparency. While consumer awareness of environmental issues remains somewhat ambiguous, there is growing attention to the use of raw materials. Notably, respondents expressed a willingness to pay a 17% premium for products featuring the DPP, with this tendency emerging as most pronounced among women, individuals aged 31–50 years, and those with high incomes. Additionally, 58% of respondents indicated a willingness to donate money in support of sustainability initiatives, though younger respondents (aged 18–30 years) appeared less inclined towards such altruistic contributions. The findings may inform business strategy and provide valuable insights into how the DPP may support the green and digital transition. However, its effectiveness depends on the integration of environmental protection measures with socioeconomic considerations, aligning with the objectives of Sustainable Development Goal 12.

Reversible Structural Oscillation Mediates Stable Oxygen Evolution Reaction.

The dynamic dissolution of active species of electrocatalysts suffers severe durability issues thus limiting practical sustainable electrochemical application despite the enormous strides in the activity. An atomistic understanding of the dynamic pattern is a fundamental prerequisite for realizing prolonged stability. Herein, modeling on NiFe LDHs, multiple operando spectroscopies revealed the structural oscillation of the local [Ni-O2-Fe] unit identified a strong dependence on the alternant Fe dissolution and redeposition during the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) process, thus mediating the dynamic stability. At this point, a proof-of-concept strategy with S, Co co-doping was demonstrated to tune structural oscillation. In-situ S leaching that alleviates the lattice mismatch suppresses Fe dissolution while the electron-withdrawing Co as a deposition site promotes Fe redeposition, thus achieving the reversible oscillation of local [Ni/Co-O2-Fe] units and dynamic stability. The implementation of the modified NiFe LDH in industrial water electrolysis equipment operated steadily over 800 h (5000-h lifetime obtained by epitaxial method with 10% attenuation) with an energy consumption of 4.05 kWh Nm-3 H2 @ 4000 A m-2. The levelized cost of hydrogen of US$2.315/KgH2 overmatches the European Commission's target for the coming decade (<US$ 2.5/kgH2).

Common agricultural policy support to silvopasture in the European Atlantic region

Agroforestry practices are sustainable forms of land management recognized by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the European Commission (EC). These organizations have established mechanisms to promote agroforestry globally. However, the policies they create often lack monitoring and thorough impact evaluation. To effectively analyze how policies promote agroforestry, it is crucial to consider the scale and context in which these practices are implemented. Policies should be tailored to specific socioeconomic and environmental contexts to ensure their relevance and effectiveness. The best practices that emerge can be applied to similar situations. The objective of this study was to analyze the current state of silvopasture in the Atlantic region of Europe and the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) measures associated with the Rural Development Programs (RDPs). The goals are to enhance our understanding of how sustainable land use systems are promoted and to provide insights that can foster agroforestry across Europe. The Atlantic region is characterized by a significant intensification of agricultural activities, with a very low proportion of silvopasture, mostly in the Northern Atlantic regions. Agroforestry is recognized for its ability to provide ecosystem services that sequester carbon and enhance biodiversity and productivity in the Central Atlantic Region of Europe by promoting hedgerows or reducing forest fires in the Southern Atlantic regions. The CAP promotes agroforestry in some of these areas, primarily through agri-environmental measures. Political measures should prioritize the management, conservation, and implementation of silvopasture to increase sustainability across the European Union (EU). Efforts to promote silvopasture should be encouraged through both agroforestry eco-schemes and CAP Pillar II interventions.

Does climate policy backlash fuel Eurosceptic vote? Exploring the link in the European Parliament elections

ABSTRACT The European Green Deal, the European Union's (EU) plan for its green transition, aims to mitigate climate change through economic transformation. With extensive implications for energy, transport, agriculture, and industrial policies, it was met with both support and resistance. The latter was illustrated by the farmers' protests of early 2024. In the lead-up to the 2024 European Parliament (EP) elections, EU leaders expressed concerns that the perceived cost of climate policies might provoke public contestation and fuel Eurosceptic sentiments. This anticipated link between climate policy backlash and Euroscepticism also stirred debates within the European Commission, resulting in a notable decline in the prominence of green policies ahead of the elections. Despite the salience of these discussions in policy circles and the media, empirical evidence on the connection between climate policy scepticism and Eurosceptic vote remains limited. To address this gap, we analyse the data from the European Election Studies (EES). We demonstrate how favouring economic growth over climate policy in 2024 significantly increases the likelihood of Eurosceptic voting, a change from 2019. The implications of this association for the future of the EU's green agenda are discussed in the conclusions.

Clustering National Open Science and Open Access Policies: A Comparative Analysis of the Research Ethics Standards of European Countries

In recent years, Open Science (OS) and Open Access (OA) have become integral to European research policy, driven by the need for greater transparency, accessibility, and collaboration in knowledge production. Despite growing support from the European Commission and other supranational actors, national-level implementation remains fragmented and uneven across the continent. This study aims to compare the development and enforcement of OS&amp;OA policies across 29 European countries and to identify clusters of nations with similar policy profiles. To achieve this, 15 binary and ordinal indicators were compiled from public datasets and policy reports. Using hierarchical clustering based on Manhattan distance and Ward’s D2 linkage, countries were grouped into three distinct clusters. Supporting analyses included descriptive statistics, PCA, and radar plot visualisation. The results show a high clustering tendency (Hopkins H = 0.988) and reveal three meaningful groups: (1) countries with limited or symbolic engagement in OS&amp;OA (e.g., Italy, Ireland); (2) moderate adopters with partial institutionalisation (e.g., France, Czech Republic); and (3) leaders with comprehensive, formalised frameworks (e.g., Netherlands, Germany, Spain). Cluster 3 countries fully include FAIR principles, citizen science, and national mandates, while Cluster 1 countries largely lack these advanced elements. These findings underline the structural disparities in OS&amp;OA policy maturity across Europe and support tailored policy support, peer-learning initiatives, and regional alignment efforts within the European Research Area.

Towards integrated financing for a climate-neutral European Union

Abstract Motivation: The biggest challenge for achieving the Paris commitments and the European Union's 2030 and 2050 climate and energy targets in a just transition is to provide long-term support through coherent policies and instruments that increase public and private funds for climate transition. Due to the complexity of the 'super wicked’ climate change problem, scientists and some politicians (European Commission) recommend mainstreaming or 'integration' of climate objectives into non-climate policy areas. The study answers whether these declarations are followed by the integration of financing in EU policy and fills the gap in the literature on integrating climate policy instruments. Aim: This paper examines the progress in integrating the sources and mechanisms of financing the European Union's transition towards net-zero emissions. Results: Climate policy integration is an ongoing process that requires adjustments to activities and sources of financing. The Multi-Annual Budget and the Recovery Resilient Facility, the support of the EIB Group, national development banks and other financing institutions provide the financial, technological and political conditions for achieving the 2030 and 2050 targets. The revenues from market mechanisms (EU ETS) feed into specialised funds and public programmes, and repayable funding instruments (e.g. InvestEU Fund, the EIB) complement non-repayable funding (Structural and Investment Funds). New instruments such as the Just Transition Mechanism, the Modernisation Fund and the Social Climate Fund aim to increase public support by mitigating the costs of the transformation.