Council Of Europe Research Articles

States have a heightened duty of care owed to persons deprived of their liberty extending beyond the prohibition of torture and discrimination. Due to their complete reliance on the State, provision of adequate and quality nutrition in prison is a fundamental human right of those detained. Failure to meet the basic requirements of sustenance or deny/restrict food constitutes cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, or even torture. In order to examine global progress in protecting and upholding the rights of people living in prisons to adequate food and nutrition, we conducted a global socio-legal assessment of the United Nations (UN) Human Rights Treaty Bodies (Committee against Torture, Committee for the Rights of the Child, Human Rights Committee, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women); and the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) mission reporting on selected prisons since 2015. A comprehensive global search in English and French was conducted on the Council of Europe and the UN Human Rights Treaty databases. Following double screening, the final dataset of 237 reports spanning six continents (129 countries) was charted, tabularized against norms and standards (UN Nelson Mandela Rules, Bangkok Rules, the European Prison Rules) and analyzed thematically. Identified areas of concern and possible human rights violations documented by prison inspections centered on six key themes: geographies where the right to adequate food in prisons is of concern; inadequacy of food provision; poor food preparation practices, environmental health standards and disease; reliance on external support for food, corruption and exploitation; food as punishment and control measure; and vulnerability of special populations in prison. Despite international and regional human rights norms and assurances, prison inspections revealed that standards and adequacy of food and nutrition in prisons are often lacking due to resource scarcity, violence, punishment, inter-personal dynamics and corruption. UN Human Rights Treaty Bodies and CPT inspections must continue to thoroughly assess food standards and provision in prisons, ensure that the denial or restriction of food as punishment is prohibited, and include a focus on those with gender and age-related, religious and medical needs.

The proliferation of algorithmic decision-making systems in government administration represents a fundamental transformation of the administrative state, challenging traditional conceptions of administrative law and demanding new theoretical frameworks for understanding governance in the digital age. This research examines the intellectualization of administrative law in response to algorithmic governance, analyzing how legal scholars and practitioners are conceptualizing core administrative principles—transparency, accountability, due process, and reasoned decision-making—to accommodate the sociotechnical complexities of automated systems. Through a comprehensive analysis of recent scholarship, international regulatory developments, and emerging jurisprudence, this paper identifies the evolution from rights-based remedies to systemic governance approaches, including internal administrative rules, prospective benchmarking, and risk-based regulatory frameworks. The research reveals significant tensions between technical efficiency and democratic legitimacy, particularly where algorithmic opacity undermines traditional administrative law safeguards. Emerging international law constraints, notably from the European Union and Council of Europe, are creating new transnational frameworks that emphasize human oversight, impact assessments, and procedural safeguards. The findings suggest that effective algorithmic governance requires methodological pluralism combining doctrinal analysis, empirical evaluation, and comparative institutional study. This research contributes to the growing body of literature on digital governance by providing a systematic analysis of how administrative law is adapting to algorithmic systems and identifying key areas for future research and policy development.

The European Council recommends adopting risk-based screening when relevant. In triaging HPV-positive women, it can be an effective strategy to reduce overtreatment and referral to colposcopy. HPV genotyping and p16/ki67 expression may allow a better risk stratification than cytology. In Italy, recommendations on their use (alone or combined) in screening were developed by a multi-professional (nine scientific societies) and multidisciplinary working group (including patients and decision makers). Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) Evidence to Decision frameworks were used. Data from large clinical trials on screening populations with long follow-up instructed the biomarkers' evaluation. The working group defined the CIN3+ risk thresholds (a surrogate marker of cancer risk) to guide decisions on management: immediate colposcopy, referral to 1-year and 3-year retesting. The risk-based approach allowed to reduce the number of possible strategies to be compared to five specific healthcare questions framed as PICOs. The prioritised outcomes were risk of cancer and of CIN3+ in HPV+/triage-negative women, number of colposcopies, number of samples to be taken, and number of unneeded treatments. The combination of morphological markers (cytology or p16/ki67) and extended HPV genotyping was the only strategy with a conditional recommendation in favour when compared with cytology.

The article examines international standards for preventing and managing conflicts of interest in public administration, which are formed based on the consensus of leading international organizations regarding ensuring integrity and transparency in public governance. The study analyzes fundamental international documents in this field, particularly the UN Convention against Corruption of 2003, the Council of Europe conventions on criminal and civil liability for corruption, which establish general frameworks for national legislation and define minimum standards for combating corrupt practices. Special attention is paid to analyzing the provisions of the UN Convention against Corruption, which obliges state parties to create systems for ensuring transparency and avoiding conflicts of interest, as well as implementing declaration mechanisms for their detection. The International Code of Conduct for Public Officials of 1996 and its approaches to regulating conflicts of interest are examined. The standards of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) are analyzed in detail, particularly the Recommendations on Principles for Managing Conflicts of Interest in the Public Sector of 2003 and 2020, which define conflict of interest as a situation between public duty and private interest of officials. The comprehensive OECD system for managing conflicts of interest is studied, which includes prevention policy, detection mechanisms, resolution procedures, and monitoring measures. The role of the Council of Europe in forming standards for preventing conflicts of interest through the Model Code of Conduct for Public Officials of 2000 and GRECO activities is revealed. The mechanism for monitoring compliance with international standards through the process of peer review and peer pressure is demonstrated, which ensures practical control and mutual accountability of states. A conclusion is made about the contemporary development of international standards, characterized by strengthening preventive measures, using information technologies, and creating a culture of integrity in public administration, which ensures the dynamism of the system of norms and principles.

This paper examines the evolution of corporate criminal liability in Romanian and European criminal law, highlighting the shift from the traditional principle societas delinquere non potest to the contemporary recognition of corporate criminal responsibility. The primary aim of the study is to assess the effectiveness of the current sanctioning mechanisms applicable to legal persons, through a comparative analysis of Romanian and selected European legal systems. The research traces the normative development of corporate liability in Romania, especially following the 2004 Criminal Code, and analyzes its alignment with European Union directives and Council of Europe standards. Through comparative examination of jurisdictions such as France, Germany, and the Netherlands, the study evaluates the structure, proportionality, and practical enforcement of sanctions imposed on corporate entities. It also explores doctrinal and jurisprudential debates on the attribution of criminal liability to legal persons, evidentiary challenges, and the impact of corporate compliance programs in mitigating responsibility.Special emphasis is placed on the interpretative role of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) and the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), whose rulings increasingly shape national approaches. By integrating legal theory with case law analysis, the paper aims to determine whether current mechanisms serve their preventive and deterrent functions effectively, and to identify areas where further harmonization or reform is necessary. The findings contribute to the ongoing European discourse on corporate accountability and the need for coherent, functional, and just responses to corporate crime.

Deprivation of citizenship has become a widespread measure of combatting terrorism in Western Europe. Its extensive use raises the question of the level of necessary guarantees and safeguards, and the answer is contingent on whether deprivation of citizenship can be considered punishment within the meaning of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). The author analyses the leading case of Ghoumid and Others v. France , which stated that deprivation of citizenship was not punishment. This judgement is criticised from the standpoint of the internal perspective of ECHR (previous case law, especially concerning the Engel criteria, ECHR interpretation techniques) and theoretical analysis of the concept of punishment. The author concludes that deprivation of citizenship is indeed punishment, and therefore the guarantees of Articles 6 and 7 ECHR, as well as Articles 2 and 4 of Protocol no 7 to ECHR, must be applied to such measures. As there might be doubts as to whether these standards are complied with by countries of the Council of Europe, the author proposes that such a measure be imposed by a criminal court in the same proceeding as criminal punishment for an act of terrorism.

In the scientific article, the authors conducted a scientific study of the legal aspects of determining and protecting the rights of foreigners and stateless persons subject to expulsion in accordance with Directive 2008/115/EC and the legislation of the Member States of the European Union. The scientific article indicates that in the countries of the European Union, the procedure for detention and expulsion is regulated, on the one hand, by Directive 2008/115/EC of the European Parliament and of the European Council of 16 December 2008 «On common standards and procedures for returning illegally staying third-country nationals», on the other hand, by national legislation, which may supplement the provisions of the Return Directive, but must not contradict it, and by Readmission Agreements between the European Union and third countries. The Return Directive defines the requirements for return decisions and, where appropriate, entry ban decisions and expulsion decisions, the grounds for non-application of an expulsion decision, the specificities of expulsion of minors, the procedure for the application and time limits of entry ban decisions, the main safeguards applicable to detained persons, including unaccompanied minors and families with minors. The Latvian Immigration Act provides for an extrajudicial procedure for the adoption of a decision on forced expulsion (by a representative of the border guard unit), which simultaneously entails an entry ban, and also establishes a special feature of the implementation of forced expulsion – monitoring of its implementation by the Ombudsman. Polish migration legislation also defines the link between the adopted decision on forced expulsion (in the form of a «forced obligation», which is fulfilled independently and at one’s own expense) and the entry ban. Forced expulsion under German migration law determines its application on the basis of a court decision in cases where a foreigner has failed to fulfill his obligations within the established period, as well as if a foreign citizen is detained in connection with an unauthorized crossing of the external border of the European Union.

ABSTRACT This article examines the role of the European Council in shaping the EU’s policy response to three crises in ‘core state power’ policy areas, namely the COVID-19 pandemic (budgetary and financial assistance policy), the Russian invasion of Ukraine (common foreign and security policy) and the rule of law controversy (identity and constitutional policy). It carries out a theory-building process-tracing analysis of dominance exerted by the European Council over the decision-making process that led to the establishment of the Recovery and Resilience Facility, sanctions against Russia and the rule of law conditionality system respectively. The findings shed light on exactly how the European Council, in the presence of crises involving ‘core state powers’, is able to exercise decision-making powers beyond the letter of the treaties, relegating the other EU institutions to a consultative or implementing role. These findings can be generalised across different crises framed at the EU level which tap into the realm of core state powers.

ABSTRACT This article presents an ethnographic exploration of the relationship between archaeology and construction in the context of developer-funded projects. Although what follows is a UK-focused discussion, much will be relevant in countries where the Valletta Convention has been ratified (Council of Europe 1992) and where developer-funded (or preventive) systems operate, so an international context is provided to widen the scope of this study. We provide some contextualized background to both occupations, examining major differences and some similarities in practice. We then analyze communication between both disciplines, as well as the perception of archaeology as a risk for developers, before arguing that the notion of incommensurability helps us understand both issues. This phenomenon can be observed in the need that archaeologists have to “translate” when interacting and working in developer-funded contexts and by the issues caused by uncertainty, which is a key tenet of archaeological epistemologies, as recently explored by Frieman’s discussion of unproof (2024); both elements are also affected by the unequal relationship of power within which this specific archaeological praxis exists.

A global commitment has been observed toward the incorporation of experiential methodologies into education. Experiential learning strategies have been increasingly integrated into classrooms across various educational levels, and their use has been recognized as a core competency for educators (Council of Europe, 2018). The primary aim of this study is to analyze academic research concerning the application of experiential learning in music education. A sample was obtained from the Web of Science Core Collection, encompassing publications from January 1, 2014, to July 20, 2025. Multiple bibliometric tools, including GraphPad Prism v8.0.2, CiteSpace (6.2.4R), and VOSviewer (1.6.18), were employed to examine publication trends, relevant journals and authors, geographic distribution, keywords, and emerging research themes. The study analyzed 817 relevant publications spanning 76 countries and regions, 1,140 institutions, and 2,865 authors. The analysis demonstrated that (1) publication volume has shown a consistent upward trajectory, accelerating post-2019 with a peak anticipated in 2024; (2) the United States has led in both publication count (310, 37.94%) and citation frequency (5,111), followed by China; (3) the Journal of Chemical Education has been identified as the most prolific journal; and (4) research focal points have shifted from foundational topics such as categorization and integrated learning development to contemporary themes including active learning and concept drift. Looking ahead, two prominent areas of focus are anticipated to involve the integration of artificial intelligence and neural networks in music education, and the amalgamation of experiential learning with innovative pedagogical strategies.

BackgroundAccreditation of healthcare provider training programs ensures graduate competency and provides a means for programs to improve. Accreditation consistency assures the public that healthcare providers have similar basic training across world regions. Currently, it is unknown if chiropractic accrediting agencies have congruent standards globally. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate similarities and differences in student competencies and program standards among four chiropractic accreditation agencies worldwide.MethodsA quantitative content analysis was performed on accreditation standards from regional international accreditation agencies responsible for accrediting the majority of the world’s chiropractic degree programs. Agencies included the Council on Chiropractic Education (United States), the European Council on Chiropractic Education (Europe, United Kingdom, South Africa), the Council on Chiropractic Education Australasia (Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia), and the Council on Chiropractic Education Canada (Canada). The contents of the accrediting standards were coded using a standardized coding list. A modified Delphi technique was used by 21 international experts from December 1, 2023, to April 18, 2024. After four rounds of consideration to achieve consensus, the contents were analyzed for frequency and congruence of coded items across the accrediting agencies’ standards. A two-way analysis of variance was conducted to identify if there were any differences among the accreditation agencies.ResultsNeither student competencies [F(3,8) = 0.007, p > .05] nor program standards [F(3,4) = 0.002, p > .05] differed significantly across the accrediting agencies. The statistical relationships between accreditation agencies and coding frequencies remained stable across all coded items, with no single code exhibiting differential performance depending on the accrediting body. The overall model showed R2 = 0.96 for student competencies and R2 = 0.87 for program standards; thus, the models’ predictions align with the observed data.ConclusionsThe study findings demonstrate congruence for student competencies and program standards among chiropractic accreditation agencies across multiple geographic regions. The patterns of content were stable and consistent across the four accrediting agencies, with no evidence of differential effects among the agencies. In addition, this study provides essential details and standardized codes for agencies’ documents, which may facilitate dialogue and comprehension among agencies, educators, regulators, governing officials, and other stakeholders in chiropractic education.Study registrationThe study protocol was prospectively registered with Open Science Framework on November 30, 2023 10.17605/OSF.IO/259WC.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12909-025-08052-3.

ABSTRACT This study examines how the term ‘gender’ is framed across European Union’s three key bodies: European Parliament, European Commission and European Council during two parliamentary terms (2014–2019 and 2019–2024). Using Word2Vec, combined with UMAP dimensionality reduction and KMeans clustering, the analysis identifies the terms most closely associated with gender, their thematic clusters, and how these change over time. To ensure interpretive depth, computational text analysis is situated within Feminist Standpoint Epistemology, feminist critiques of gendered dualisms and the high-/low-politics dichotomy in International Relations. Findings show that gender-related discourse in the EU is unevenly distributed across institutions, reflecting both the EU’s formal competences and entrenched symbolic hierarchies. In the Parliament and Commission, gender is visible but framed primarily through economic and technocratic logics – pay gaps, employment, care, and procedural mainstreaming – while more transformative framings remain limited. By contrast, in the European Council, gender references are almost absent, confined to isolated mentions, underscoring the persistence of epistemic exclusion in masculinized arenas of ‘high politics’. In this way, the study demonstrates how computational text analysis, when embedded in feminist theory, can reveal the structural and symbolic power relations that shape EU policy discourse, despite the Union’s self-image as a gender equality leader.

Abstract EURAMET EMPIR 19NET03 supportBSS project entitled Support for a European Metrology Network (EMN) on reliable radiation protection regulation, started in June 2020 and completed in May 2024. One of the tasks of the supportBSS project was the preparation of a Strategic Research Agenda (SRA) based on the identified metrology needs to support the European legislation and regulation in Radiation Protection, and of two Roadmaps for metrology services and capabilities, one under the European Council Directive 2013/59/EURATOM and the other under the EURATOM Treaty. The preparation of the SRA began with a comprehensive literature review including the analysis of the SRAs from the MEENAS Radiation Protection platforms and of strategic documents from other relevant organizations such as IAEA, BIPM-CCRI, HERCA, EURAMET, among others. Information was also collected from the stakeholders at different stages of the project, through organized workshops and a targeted questionnaire, which included specific sections for metrology laboratories and for stakeholders from the different fields of activity. This paper presents the first SRA and Roadmaps developed as key outputs of the supportBSS project, presented to EURAMET as deliverables 4 and 5 at the closure of the project. Taking into account the ongoing technological developments in the field, as well as the fact that EURAMET may use the information collected at its own discretion, it is anticipated the European Metrology Network for Radiation Protection will need to periodically revise and update these documents in the near future.

Mediterranean Cultural Heritage (MCH) has become increasingly prominent within European cultural policy and identity-building strategies. This article explores how MCH has been addressed in European initiatives and academic research, combining qualitative analysis of institutional and policy frameworks with bibliometric network analysis. The study focuses on three main areas: the role of the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM) in heritage-related actions; the presence of MCH in two key European initiatives — the European Heritage Label and the Cultural Routes of the Council of Europe; and the identification of trends in European academic production since the launch of the Barcelona Process in 1995. Findings show that MCH has been mobilised as a tool for cultural diplomacy, regional cooperation, and the promotion of shared values, although its representation often remains implicit and fragmented. While initiatives such as the Day of the Mediterranean and the Mediterranean Capitals of Culture and Dialogue highlight growing recognition of Mediterranean diversity, challenges persist concerning Eurocentrism, limited inclusivity, and instrumentalisation of heritage. Bibliometric analysis also reveals a strong focus on themes such as sustainability, climate change, and intangible heritage, with the Mediterranean Diet emerging as a particularly influential topic. The article concludes that MCH is increasingly used to support European identity narratives and regional engagement, yet calls for more integrated and participatory approaches that reflect the complexity of the Mediterranean space and its diverse cultural legacies.

The article examines foreign experience in forming corporate integrity of customs service personnel of leading countries of the world, as well as its significance for increasing the efficiency and transparency of customs administration. The analysis of the basic principles, institutional mechanisms and practical measures aimed at strengthening ethical standards, preventing corruption and developing a culture of integrity among customs officials is carried out. Of particular importance in the formation of corporate integrity of customs service personnel is the adaptation and implementation of international standards, taking into account the national legislative and socio-cultural context. Such a comprehensive approach contributes to the sustainable increase in public trust in customs institutions and the strengthening of their competitiveness in the international arena. That is why, special attention in the article is paid to the study of international standards and recommendations, in particular, documents of the World Customs Organization (WCO), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the Council of Europe, which serve as the basis for the formation of anti-corruption policy and corporate ethics of customs authorities. Specific practices of countries such as Germany, France, and the European Union are analyzed, including the use of codes of conduct, internal control systems, training programs, and innovative technologies to minimize corruption risks. The article examines and analyzes the functions of corporate integrity that ensure that customs services comply with international standards. The role of personnel policy and qualification procedures in the formation of honest personnel is emphasized, as well as the importance of transparency and public control in maintaining trust in customs institutions. The results of the study can be used to improve national legislation and practice in the field of customs administration, increase the level of corporate integrity in Ukraine, and ensure its integration into the European and world community.

The article describes the provisions of the Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of the Environment through Criminal Law, adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on May 13-14, 2025, for exploring the relationship between the crime of ecocide and «particularly serious offence» in the meaning of Article 31 of the Convention. It was established that although the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe in its resolutions and recommendations has repeatedly emphasized the inclusion of provisions on the crime of ecocide in the 2025 CoE Convention on the Protection of the Environment through Criminal Law, ecocide was mentioned in the text of the Convention just in the preamble. Instead of dedicated regulation, Article 31 of the aforementioned Convention set out a provision about “particularly serious offence”, which can be considered as a particularly qualified corpus delicti of an offence against the environment, in which the consequences of committing any of the acts which are specified in the Article 31 of Convention, are the signs of the qualified elements of the relevant crime. Having analyzed the provisions of the Explanatory Report to the Convention, the draft of the Convention, resolutions and recommendations of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, it is argued that a particularly serious offence in the meaning of the Convention is an offence against the environment that reaches the threshold of ecocide. Based on the provisions of the Environmental Code of the French Republic, an example of differentiation in criminal legislation of norms on causing damage to the environment is given, in which the element of a corpus delicti that causes the damage is considered as crime against the environment, and if the certain signs are presented (form of guilt, reaching a certain threshold of harm) – this act is considered as ecocide. It is concluded that the Convention allows for variations in defining of the signs of ecocide in domestic law and the construction of a norm that would define the signs of ecocide as a dedicated (autonomous) offence is not the one correct model that could be enshrined in domestic legislation.

The article presents a comprehensive study of the role of international information in the field of law enforcement, with an emphasis on current trends in the implementation of artificial intelligence technologies by state authorities. In the context of globalization and the increasing volume of transnational information flows, the rapid and effective exchange of data between law enforcement bodies of different countries becomes particularly important. Artificial intelligence serves as a tool capable of automating the analysis of large datasets, ensuring timely threat detection, and enhancing the efficiency of law enforcement activities. The article establishes that the integration of artificial intelligence into international law enforcement cooperation encompasses the exchange of operational messages, detection and prevention of transnational crimes, as well as the analytical processing of information from both open and closed sources. Special attention is devoted to the legal and ethical aspects of applying intelligent systems in law enforcement. The author analyzes international legal instruments regulating the use of artificial intelligence and the standards adopted by international organizations, including the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the European Union, Interpol, and Europol. The study identifies key risks associated with automated decision-making, among them potential violations of human rights and the use of algorithms that may contain biases or lead to discrimination. The article also addresses the principles of legality, proportionality, and accountability in the deployment of innovative technologies in the security domain. The effective use of international information with the application of artificial intelligence requires the development of clear legal frameworks that balance security needs with the protection of human rights and freedoms. The paper outlines ways to improve international coordination in this area, including the creation of unified standards for data processing algorithms, the introduction of independent audit mechanisms, and the provision of transparency in the operation of automated systems. The recommendations aim to increase public trust in state institutions that employ artificial intelligence in law enforcement and to promote the formation of a legal environment capable of effectively responding to the challenges of the digital era.

This article explores the issue of ensuring human rights in the context of post-war recovery in a state that has experienced armed conflict. The author substantiates a key thesis: human rights must serve not only as a moral compass but also as the foundation for rebuilding society, the legal system, and institutions. By analyzing the multifaceted aspects of post-war recovery – from infrastructure reconstruction to the rehabilitation of victims – the author argues that compliance with human rights is a critical factor for achieving sustainable peace, social cohesion, and public trust in the state. Special attention is paid to the restoration of justice, the establishment of the rule of law, equal access to legal assistance, and safeguards for vulnerable groups. The article emphasizes the importance of transitional justice as a tool for uncovering historical truth, ensuring accountability, and restoring justice. In this process, the cleansing of the judiciary, guaranteeing its independence, and preventing impunity are of critical importance. The role of social policy in ensuring a decent standard of living and the reintegration of affected individuals is also considered. The author highlights the need for an individualized approach to supporting persons with disabilities, veterans, orphans, the elderly, and internally displaced persons, as well as the fundamental importance of non-discrimination and equal access to assistance and resources. Particular attention is given to the role of international organizations – such as the UN, Council of Europe, OSCE, and International Criminal Court – in monitoring human rights compliance, supporting reforms, and guaranteeing non-repetition of crimes. The implementation of international standards into the national legal system is regarded as a necessary condition for building a state governed by the rule of law. Equally important is the active participation of civil society, including human rights defenders, journalists, volunteers, and non-governmental organizations. They play a key role in monitoring, protecting the rights of vulnerable groups, and filling gaps not addressed by the state. The article stresses the need to ensure an enabling environment for their work. Thus, the article presents a comprehensive vision of human rights compliance as a central principle of post-war recovery – one that shapes the quality of future peace, the level of social justice, and the prospects for democratic development.

The article is devoted to a comprehensive study of the institution of disciplinary liability of lawyers in global practice, focusing on existing challenges, development trends, and opportunities for harmonizing the national model with international standards. It emphasizes that disciplinary liability of lawyers is a key mechanism for ensuring high standards of professional conduct and maintaining public trust in the justice system. In the context of globalization of legal processes and Ukraine’s integration into the European legal space, improving disciplinary proceedings becomes particularly relevant. The study highlights the lack of a unified approach to the regulation of disciplinary procedures at the international level, which necessitates a comparative legal analysis. The author examines the main international standards, including Recommendation No. R(2000)21 of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe and the United Nations Basic Principles on the Role of Lawyers, which establish fundamental requirements for the independence of the legal profession, fairness, and proportionality of disciplinary sanctions. Special attention is given to principles that ensure the objectivity of disciplinary procedures: impartiality, collegiality, confidentiality, adherence to the adversarial process, the right to defense, and the right to appeal decisions. Models of disciplinary liability in EU countries (Germany, Austria, Poland, the Netherlands), as well as in the United Kingdom, the United States, and Singapore, are analyzed. Common features identified include a multi-level system of oversight, a combination of preventive and punitive measures, and an extended range of sanctions (from warnings to disbarment), along with differences determined by national legal traditions. For instance, Singapore imposes significant financial penalties, whereas the United States maintains a decentralized system involving judicial authorities. The conclusions substantiate the necessity of improving the Ukrainian model by expanding the range of disciplinary sanctions, specifying grounds for liability, introducing simplified procedures for minor violations, enhancing transparency of disciplinary bodies, and strengthening the principle of independence. Harmonization with international standards will increase the effectiveness of legal self-governance, ensure a balance between lawyers’ rights and public interest, and contribute to the development of the rule of law.

International conventions are the backbone of our global effort to make cyberspace safer. The internet connects us all, but it also creates avenues for cybercrime, from fraud and hacking to more insidious threats like child exploitation and the spread of harmful misinformation. International conventions play a critical yet complex role in the evolving regulation of cyberspace. Facing a borderless and rapidly advancing digital domain, these agreements strive to establish common legal frameworks, foster international cooperation, and address transnational cyber threats. A foundational paradigm for many states, treaties such as the Council of Europe's Budapest Convention on Cybercrime have greatly standardized national cybercrime legislation and enabled reciprocal legal aid. The UN Convention against Cybercrime, that was recently adopted, represents an international attempt to create a more thorough and widely recognized framework that would close current loopholes and improve the exchange of evidence across borders. The ever-changing nature of cyber technology, conflicting national interests regarding sovereignty and data governance, the difficulty of attribution of cyberattacks, and the substantial involvement of non-state actors all pose challenges to the efficacy of these conventions. While these instruments provide essential norms for responsible state behavior, promote capacity building, and criminalize a range of malicious cyber activities, their implementation often faces hurdles such as slow ratification, broad definitions, and the need to balance security imperatives with human rights protections. Ultimately, international conventions serve as crucial, albeit imperfect, mechanisms for building consensus and legal predictability in a domain that defies traditional geographical and legal boundaries. To sum it up in simpler words it is the shared rulebooks nations create to tackle online threats that transcending the borders.