China's National Volume-Based Procurement (NVBP) policy, introduced in 2018, aims to reduce pharmaceutical prices by exchanging large guaranteed purchase volumes for substantial price concessions on selected drugs. While existing research documents substantial price reductions for contracted drugs, less is known about how this selective price regulation affects pricing behavior in the broader pharmaceutical market. Using public hospital procurement data and exploiting variation in the timing of NVBP implementation, this study examines spillover effects on prices, sales quantities, and revenues of non-contracted drugs. We find that NVBP is associated with significant increases in both prices and revenues of non-contracted drugs. These effects are consistent with strategic margin reallocation by multi-product firms seeking to offset revenue losses from contracted products. Spillovers are not uniform. They are larger in chronic-disease therapeutic areas, where demand is more predictable, and substitution is limited, and in poorer regions, where market competition and regulatory capacity are weaker. Additional analyses show that spillover effects are amplified in more concentrated therapeutic markets, suggesting that market structure constrains competitive responses. The findings highlight an important trade-off in centralized procurement policies. While NVBP successfully reduces prices for targeted medicines, selective price regulation may generate unintended spillovers in the broader pharmaceutical market.

Transportation infrastructure and college admissions quality: Evidence from China's National College Entrance Examination

Can nature-based solutions improve urban land green use efficiency? Evidence from China's National Forest City certification

A yellow strain, designated YCB016T, was isolated from rhizosphere soil of Camellia oleifera Abel collected from Xingning city, Guangdong Province, PR China. The strain was aerobic, rod-shaped, without flagella. Phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA gene revealed strain YCB016T showed the highest similarities of 98.9% and 98.2% to Trinickia terrae 7GSK02T, Trinickia mobilis DHG64T and Trinickia fusca GDMCC 1.1449T, respectively. The phylogenomic tree revealed strain YCB016T formed a clade with Trinickia violacea DHOD12T. The major cellular fatty acids of strain YCB016T included C16:0, C17:0 cyclo, C19:0 cyclo ɷ8c and summed feature 8. The major polar lipids were phosphatidylethanolamine, diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylglycerol and hydroxyphosphatidylethanolamine. The predominant respiratory quinone was ubiquinone-8. The average nucleotide identities (ANI) and the digital DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH) values among strain YCB016T and all 11 species of the genus Trinickia were 77.7-92.8% and 22.3-50.4%, respectively, which are interspersed on the intra-species cutoff values. The draft genome size of strain YCB016T was 7.3 Mbp with a DNA G + C content of 63.5%. Based on phenotypic, chemotaxonomic, phylogenetic analysis, genomic DNA G + C content, ANI and dDDH values, strain YCB016T represents a novel species of the genus Trinickia, for which the name Trinickia camelliae sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is YCB016T (= GDMCC 1.3849T = JCM 36232T). Additionally, strain YCB016T produced siderophore, cellulase and lipase whereas T. fusca GDMCC 1.1449T produced siderophore and indoleacetic acid (IAA). The Trinickia symbiotica JPY-345T and Trinickia caryophylli DSM 50341T contained nifH and nifD genes while other species did not. The nodD gene was present in all species. Collectively, the genus Trinickia exhibited potential plant growth-promoting activities.

China's National Centralized Drug Procurement (NCDP) consolidates public-sector procurement demand and links guaranteed volumes to competitive tendering. The impact of this policy on reshaping the tuberculosis (TB) medicines market-specifically prices and expenditure, procurement volumes, and market structure-remains insufficiently quantified using time-series methods across multiple procurement cycles and hospital types. A hospital-stratified interrupted time series (ITS) study was conducted utilizing monthly public-hospital procurement data from January 2015 to December 2022. Six TB medicines included in national procurement rounds 2-4 comprised the intervention group: isoniazid, moxifloxacin, ethambutol, linezolid, levofloxacin, and pyrazinamide. Nine TB-related medicines not included in these rounds served as comparators: rifampicin, rifapentine, rifabutin, streptomycin, protionamide, cycloserine, p-aminosalicylic acid sodium, bedaquiline, and clofazimine. Analyses were stratified by hospital type (general versus TB-specialized hospitals) and drug classification (first-line versus second-line agents). Outcome measures included procurement volume, total expenditure and cost per defined daily dose (DDDc), market concentration, and the number of active manufacturers in hospital procurement. Segmented regression analysis estimated immediate level and subsequent slope changes. Sensitivity analyses with alternative comparator specifications assessed robustness and parallel trends assumptions. Following NCDP implementation, hospital procurement costs for TB medicines declined substantially across both hospital types. In general hospitals, expenditure decreased significantly. DDDc reductions were dramatic: linezolid decreased from approximately 800 Renminbi (RMB) to below 100 RMB; moxifloxacin from 99 RMB to 20 RMB; levofloxacin from 24 RMB to 9 RMB. Similar patterns were observed in specialized hospitals. Market structure effects exhibited heterogeneity: first-line drugs showed increased concentration with declining manufacturer participation, while second-line drugs demonstrated expanded supplier participation and decreased Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI). Sensitivity analyses confirmed robustness across alternative comparator specifications. The NCDP achieved substantial price and expenditure reductions for TB medicines whilst inducing heterogeneous effects on market structure-increased concentration for first-line drugs but expanded supplier participation and decreased market concentration for second-line drugs. TB-specialized hospitals, with higher baseline concentration and fewer suppliers, face heightened supply chain vulnerability. Given NCDP's design-where hospitals independently select among winning suppliers and may procure non-winning products-policymakers should implement differentiated approaches: multi-winner tender designs to preserve supplier diversity for first-line drugs; strategic stockpiles and supplier qualification programs for specialized hospitals; and continued volume-price guarantees for second-line agents such as linezolid and moxifloxacin. Regular monitoring of market structure indicators across hospital types is essential to balance price efficiency with supply resilience. Not applicable.

Two Gram-stain-negative, facultatively anaerobic, light-yellow, rod-shaped bacterial strains, designated as FT23028T and FT23042, were isolated from mangrove sediment collected in Shenzhen, PR China. Their taxonomic positions were established using a polyphasic approach including phylogenetic, physiological, biochemical and chemotaxonomic analyses. Both strains grew optimally at 25-30 °C and pH 7.0 without NaCl. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences indicated that strains FT23028T and FT23042 were most closely related to Brevundimonas kwangchunensis KCTC 12380T (98.31 and 98.23%), Brevundimonas lenta KCTC 12871T (98.10 and 98.03%) and Brevundimonas viscosa CGMCC 1.10683T (97.68 and 97.61%), respectively. These two strains shared 99.93% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity with each other. The predominant fatty acids (>10%) identified in strains FT23028T and FT23042 were C18:1 ω7c (and/or C18:1 ω6c, 48.7 and 53.2%, respectively) and C16:0 (29.9 and 26.4%, respectively). The polar lipid profiles included two unknown phosphoglycolipids, five glycolipids and three unidentified lipids. The respiratory quinone was Q-10. The total sequence lengths of strains FT23028T and FT23042 were 3,122,877 and 3,235,296 bp, with DNA G+C contents of 65.3 and 67.4 mol%, respectively. Based on phenotypic, chemotaxonomic and phylogenetic distinction, a novel species of the genus Brevundimonas is proposed, for which the name Brevundimonas sediminis sp. nov. is suggested. The type strain is FT23028T (=MCCC 1K09458T=KCTC 8783T).

Two yellow-pigmented, Gram-stain-negative, strictly aerobic bacterial strains, designated as XXL09T and CLY1604T, were isolated from healthy citrus leaves collected from a well-known production area located in Deqing County, Guangdong Province, PR China. Phylogenetic analyses based on 16S rRNA gene sequences and 92 core genes showed that strains XXL09T and CLY1604T belonged to the genus Sphingomonas and were most closely related to the three validly published species Sphingomonas beigongshangi REN5T, Sphingomonas aquatilis JSS7T and Sphingomonas melonis DAPP-PG 224T. The genome-derived average nucleotide identity values between the two strains and their closely related type strains were below 84.66% and 85.21%, respectively, and the corresponding digital DNA-DNA hybridization values were below 25.70% and 27.70%, respectively. The major fatty acids of two novel strains were identified as summed feature 8 (C18 : 1 ω7c), C14 : 0 2-OH and C16 : 0. The respiratory quinone was determined to be ubiquinone 10 and the polar lipids comprised diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidyldimethylethanolamine, phosphatidylethanolamine, sphingoglycolipid, phosphatidylglycerol, an unidentified phospholipid, an unidentified glycolipid and five unidentified aminolipids. The genomic DNA G+C contents of strains XXL09T and CLY1604T were 67.1% and 68.3%, respectively. Phenotypic and physiological characterizations further revealed plant growth-promoting traits: both strains produced siderophores and indole-3-acetic acid, suggesting capabilities in iron acquisition and phytohormone synthesis. Notably, only strain XXL09T exhibited inorganic phosphate solubilization activity, highlighting its potential role to enhance nutrient availability to host plants. Integrating comprehensive genomic, phylogenetic, chemotaxonomic and phenotypic evidence, strains XXL09T and CLY1604T are proposed to represent two novel species of the genus Sphingomonas, for which the names Sphingomonas benefaciens sp. nov. and Sphingomonas cellulosilytica sp. nov. are proposed, with XXL09T (=GDMCC 1.5297T=CCM 9448=JCM 37846T) and CLY1604T (=GDMCC 1.5301T=CCM 9452T=JCM 37845T) as the type strains, respectively.

From coal to code: The transformative role of fintech and renewable energy in China's low-carbon transition

Eligibility criteria used in cancer clinical trials ensure internal validity but may restrict enrollment and limit external generalizability. The US National Cancer Institute (NCI) has recommended broader criteria, but similar guidance is lacking in China. The authors reviewed cancer clinical trials registered on China's National Medical Products Administration (NMPA) Registration and Information Disclosure Platform between 2013 and 2021. Eligibility criteria were classified as compliant or restrictive based on the US NCI recommendations. Trends over time and associations between trial characteristics and noncompliance were analyzed. There were 2448 cancer clinical trials investigating anticancer drugs registered in China. Eligibility criteria for performance status (PS), organ function, and comorbidities were used in 96.3%, 74.7%, and 95.3% of trials, respectively; overall, 97.0% used at least one restrictive criterion beyond NCI's recommendations. The median number of restrictive criteria used was two (interquartile range [IQR], 1-3) for trials approved in 2013-2015, three (IQR, 2-4) for trials approved in 2016-2018, and three (IQR, 2-4) for trials approved in 2019-2021 (p<.001). Noncompliance became more frequent for PS (p=.000), cardiac function (p=.005), and prior/concurrent malignancies (p=.018) over time. These findings highlight a need for more inclusive and modernized eligibility criteria for the advancement of cancer clinical trials in China.

The US Food and Drug Administration Cancer Drugs with Accelerated Approval in China's National Reimbursement

Expanding mountain-type zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis in China: a multi-source data-driven investigation.

ABSTRACT How do the European Union (EU) and the People’s Republic of China (PRC), as leadership-type regional powers, use discourse to shape regional order and structure the roles, responsibilities and expectations of neighbouring states? A corpus-assisted critical discourse analysis (CDA) of European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) documents (2004-21) and Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) texts (2013-21) identifies recurring patterns of role attribution, action modality and expectation framing. The EU performs leadership primarily through procedural legitimation, embedding partners within rules, instruments and administrative pathways, whereas the PRC foregrounds symbolic and relational language, historical narratives and ‘win-win’ promises. Viewed through the lens of regional leadership, these styles share a logic of discursive governance: repeated formulas stabilise expectations, encode hierarchy and sustain authority without overt coercion. Discursive leadership can thus be conceptualised as a strategic mechanism of regional power.

AI is reshaping medical research and healthcare delivery, yet the translation of AI innovations into clinically approved medical devices remains limited. This article explores the critical role of regulatory frameworks in bridging this translational gap, with a focus on the full-lifecycle supervision model proposed by China's National Medical Products Administration (NMPA). We first outline the inherent characteristics and risks of AI that challenge conventional evaluation approaches. By examining a patient-centered AI ecosystem encompassing academia, industry, and regulatory bodies, we highlight the misalignment between preclinical AI research output and the relatively small number of approved AI medical devices (AIMDs). In response, we provide a systematic mapping between AI characteristics and corresponding regulatory control measures, offering a point-to-point interpretation of the NMPA's approach. We argue that effective evaluation must extend beyond performance metrics to include development processes and non-functional attributes such as safety, usability, and explainability. A structured, actionable checklist is proposed to guide the comprehensive assessment of AIMDs throughout their lifecycle. This framework aims to enhance regulatory clarity, promote safe deployment, and ultimately improve public trust and patient outcomes in the era of AI-powered medicine. CRITICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT: This framework aims to improve regulatory clarity, supporting safe deployment of AI medical devices, enhancing public trust, and ultimately optimizing patient outcomes in AI-powered healthcare. KEY POINTS: Despite the rapid AI advancement, the number of approved AI medical devices remains disproportionately small, revealing a translational gap. The study identifies several intrinsic characteristics of AI that contribute to regulatory complexity and potential safety risks in clinical practice. A point-to-point mapping is established between AI characteristics and regulatory control measures, providing an interpretation of NMPA full-lifecycle supervision model. A detailed actionable checklist is proposed, extending beyond algorithmic performance, thereby promoting transparent and reproducible AIMDs development. The framework provides a policy-relevant pathway for harmonizing AI innovation with regulatory oversight, fostering patient-centered integration of AI into healthcare.

ABSTRACT This article explores the education policies of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) towards returned qiaosheng 侨生 (overseas Chinese students) between 1949 and 1966, a formative period of socialist nation-building. Drawing on Chinese local archives, institutional records, and memoirs, it investigates how the PRC sought to reshape the outlook of qiaosheng who returned with patriotic idealism but soon encountered disillusionment in post-revolutionary China. Central and local authorities employed preferential treatment, labour education, and ideological training to integrate qiaosheng into the socialist system and mobilise them for national reconstruction. The article argues that despite constraints, the education policies partially succeeded in reorienting qiaosheng’s identities and embedding socialist values. Situating qiaosheng within the broader project of socialist nation-building, this study contributes to debates on education, migration, and political socialisation in Cold War Asia, while revealing how the PRC managed transnational loyalties in a volatile era.

Two Gram-stain-negative, rod-shaped, non-motile, aerobic bacteria, designated SDU82T and SDU101, were isolated from garden soil at the Central Campus of Shandong University, Jinan, PR China. Both strains grew at 4-40 °C, with 0-3.0% (w/v) NaCl and at pH 7.0-10.0. Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rRNA gene sequence showed that SDU82T and SDU101 were most closely related to Luteimonas composti CCUG 53595T, with the sequence similarity of 98.71% and 98.77%, respectively. The draft genome sizes were 3.90 Mbp for SDU82T and 3.97 Mbp for SDU101, with G+C contents of 70.07 mol% and 69.82 mol%, respectively. The predominant cellular fatty acids (>10%) of both strains were iso-C15 : 0, iso-C16 : 0 and summed feature 9 (C16 : 0 10-methyl and iso C17 : 1 ω9ϲ). The predominant polar lipids were phosphatidylglycerol, diphosphatidylglycerol and phosphatidylethanolamine, and the major menaquinone identified was ubiquinone-8 for both strains. The digital DNA-DNA hybridization and average nucleotide identity values between the two strains were 95.30% and 98.37%, while the values between SDU82T and L. composti CCUG 53595T were 31.00% and 86.23% and SDU101 and L. composti CCUG 53595T were 31.40% and 86.41%. Based on phenotypic, physiological and phylogenetic results, strains SDU82T and SDU101 represent a novel species of the genus Luteimonas, for which the name Luteimonas campi sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is SDU82T (=CGMCC 1.61917T=KCTC 8582T).

Vaccines are cornerstones of public health, yet equitable access remains a major global challenge. While China has achieved sustained high coverage of National Immunization Program (NIP) vaccines, some WHO-recommended cost-effective non-NIP vaccines, such as Hib, pneumococcal conjugate (PCV), rotavirus, and human papillomavirus vaccines (HPV) are not universally accessible and often require out-of-pocket payment. This study examines geographic and urban-rural disparities in the availability of these four vaccines across China using data from a nationally representative China's National Health Accounts survey in 2022, covering 355 district- and county-level disease control centers and 2,609 public primary health facilities across 27 provinces. Availability was defined as the presence of at least one dose delivered or administered. Inequality was assessed using Slope Index of Inequality (SII) and the Erreygers-corrected Concentration Index (CI), based on provincial GDP per capita. We found significant disparities in vaccine availability across economic development levels and urban-rural settings in China. Overall, HPV vaccines were most available (96.9%) and PCV13 the least (86.5%) at the district/county level. Urban areas had markedly higher availability than rural areas, particularly for PCV13 (94.2% vs. 79.1%). At the clinic level, over 70% of urban clinics provided all four vaccine types, compared to just 40% in rural areas. The vaccines with the highest inequality were DTaP-IPV-Hib (CI: 0.408), PCV13 (CI: 0.362), and RV5 (CI: 0.343), indicating strong pro-rich distribution. In contrast, the Hib vaccine demonstrated the lowest inequality (CI: 0.209). These findings highlight significant inequities in the availability of WHO-recommended non-NIP vaccines across China, particularly affecting rural and economically disadvantaged regions underscoring the need of expanding vaccine provision in underserved areas, strengthening rural service capacity, and considering the inclusion of these vaccines in the NIP.

During a survey of endophytic fungal diversity in Oryza sativa, a novel myrothecium-like taxon, Alfaria yunnanensis, was collected from Yunnan, PR China. This novel species is characterized by having sporodochial conidiomata, septate conidiophores, phialidic conidiogenous cells and cylindrical-to-fusiform conidia. Phylogenetic analysis of the combined sequences of the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS), the RNA polymerase II second-largest subunit (rpb2), calmodulin (cmdA) and β-tubulin (tub2) confirmed that the myrothecium-like taxon represents a novel member of the genus Alfaria. A full description, illustration and a phylogenetic tree showing the position of A. yunnanensis are provided.

ABSTRACT E‐commerce is increasingly becoming a mainstream model for business development worldwide. Utilizing comprehensive business registration data and accounting data for agricultural enterprises in China, we take China's National Rural E‐commerce Comprehensive Demonstration Policy as a quasi‐natural experiment to investigate the effects of e‐commerce penetration in villages on agricultural enterprise growth and the underlying mechanisms. We find that e‐commerce penetration in villages significantly boosts the number of agricultural enterprises, a result that remains robust across various checks. Further analysis indicates that e‐commerce penetration in villages also enhances the economic performance of agricultural enterprises and fosters their innovation activities. Mechanism analysis reveals that e‐commerce penetration boosts agricultural enterprise growth by enhancing the entrepreneurial ecosystem, as evidenced by broadening sales channels for agricultural products, enriching agricultural inputs, and expanding financial access. This study offers valuable insights for China and other developing countries on leveraging e‐commerce to promote agricultural enterprise growth.

The article examines the transformation of interaction between the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and the Russian Federation (RF) in Central Asia (CA) after 2022 in the context of profound changes in the regional and international order. The beginning of Russia’s full-scale war against Ukraine became a catalyst for the redistribution of influence in the post-Soviet space and brought to the fore the question of the nature of Sino-Russian interaction in the region. The study substantiates the thesis of a transition from formally declared strategic partnership to a model of managed competition. The research methodology is based on a combination of the theory of regional security complexes, the concept of asymmetric trade dependence, and the «axis of expediency» model, which makes it possible to define the contemporary configuration of Central Asia as structurally asymmetric. Within this framework, the region appears as a security sub-system evolving from a monocentric model dominated by Russia to a two-vector structure, in which the military-political component remains under Moscow’s influence, while the economic-institutional dimension is increasingly concentrated around China. It is demonstrated that Russia retains military-political and institutional presence by relying on post-Soviet integration and security mechanisms, as well as migration and remittance linkages. At the same time, China is strengthening its geoeconomic influence through investment, lending, infrastructure projects, and the «China–Central Asia» format, integrating the region into its broader Eurasian strategy. A comparative analysis of trade and investment dynamics indicates the formation of asymmetric interdependence, in which the states of the region are more sensitive to Beijing’s economic decisions than China is to Central Asia. The findings point to the emergence of a structurally asymmetric model of regional order in Central Asia, where Russia’s military-political presence coexists with the consolidation of China’s geoeconomic dominance. This configuration does not imply open confrontation; however, it reflects a gradual shift in the balance of power in Eurasia and a transformation of the regional security architecture in the long term.

In 2022, China's National Health Commission issued the health standard "Guideline for pediatric transfusion" (WS/T 795-2022), which provides guidance and recommendations on overall pediatric blood requirements, blood for exchange transfusion, and the use of irradiated red blood cells, washed red blood cells, and fresh red blood cells. This article explains the rationale and evidence base underlying these recommendations to facilitate a clearer understanding of the guideline.