The renewed quests for hydrocarbon prospecting and boosting the National and continental economies have intensified in the search for viable oil and gas reserves in Nigeria. These have reawakened the interests of stakeholders in energy/oil and gas matters in Sokoto basin as a potential zone for hydrocarbon potential. The study was undertaken for the purpose of unravelling and characterizing the litho-structural styles and regional trends of the earths sequence covering parts of Sokoto basin, Northwestern Nigeria with a view of delineating hydrocarbons and solid/ore mineral potentials in the area. Aerogravity datasets of parts of Sokoto Basin comprising of four (4) sheets (72,73, 95 and 96) were acquired from the Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (NGSA) by Bureau Gravimetrique Internationale (BGI), France. These datasets were acquired using a fixed-wing aircraft and processed to produce Bouguer anomaly map. Qualitative analysis was carried out using various Filtering techniques, including two-dimensional First Fourier transform (FFT2D), analytic signal, and horizontal and vertical derivatives. These enhanced data sets facilitated the mapping of structural features, faults, and potential reservoir seals. The Quantitative analysis was carried out using Euler Deconvolution technique to estimate depth and define subsurface structures. The gravity values in the total field ranged from -71.67 to -28.26 mgal. The Analytical signal revealed amplitude signal that varied from 0.00027 to 0.00107 mgal/m. numerical values of the derivatives ranged from -0.00141 to 0.00107mgal, -0.00098 to 0.00091 and -0.00091 to 0.00090 mgal/m respectively reported for first vertical and first horizontal (along X and Y-direction) derivatives. The 3D Euler Deconvolution techniques revealed the depth and locations of causative bodies that yielded the gravity field was found to be in the minimum range of 1482 to 2514m at an average depth of 2032m and the maximum range of 5653 to 6487m at an average depth of 6040m for structural Index zero (S.I = 0). Overall, the study revealed significant information on basin thickness, faulting, intrusive bodies, and structural configurations, providing essential data for resource exploration and development in the investigated area for local, national, and international benefits.

Determining the internal structure of planetary bodies from gravitational observations is a key challenge in planetary geophysics. Traditional gravity inversion methods suffer from non-uniqueness due to trade-offs between mass distribution and depth, limiting their ability to resolve internal layering. We present SynthGen , a forward-modelling code developed to simulate the gravitational response of planetary bodies using parametric, multi-layer interior models without any a priori assumption, like the hydrostatic equilibrium. SynthGen calculates gravitational potential, Free-Air, and Bouguer anomalies through spherical harmonic expansions, leveraging the SHTools library (Wieczorek and Meschede, 2018). It accommodates a wide variety of internal configurations, including homogeneous layers with user-defined densities, thicknesses, and topographic geometries of internal interfaces, such as spherical, ellipsoidal, random, or Bouguer anomaly-derived interfaces. The code can be used both predictively and diagnostically: about the latter, SynthGen performs parameter-space exploration constrained by total mass, moment of inertia, and shape, identifying best-fit interior models by minimising the misfit between observed and synthetic gravity fields using combined statistical metrics. We apply SynthGen to Mercury, using the HgM009 gravity model derived from MESSENGER data (Genova et al., 2023), and recover crustal thickness and core parameters consistent with recent independent geophysical estimates. In predictive mode, SynthGen generates synthetic gravity fields for planetary bodies where gravity data are not available or are still limited in resolution, such as Ganymede. These simulations can support the planning and optimisation of space missions. By integrating physical constraints, statistical validation, and flexibility in model design, SynthGen offers a robust platform for planetary interior studies, constraining interior structures from gravity measurements across a broad range of Solar System bodies. • SynthGen simulates gravity fields of planetary bodies using parametric interior models and spherical harmonics. • SynthGen retrieves best-fit internal structures by comparing simulated and real gravity data with statistical metrics. • SynthGen can predict gravitational signals for future missions like JUICE and supports diverse planetary scenarios.

Sumenep Regency is an area that has experienced earthquakes with fatalities caused by activity along the Rembang, Madura, Kangean, and Sakala (RMKS) faults. This study aims to identify subsurface structures, particularly faults, in the Sumenep region using satellite gravity image data downloaded from GGMPlus. The gravity acceleration data obtained were processed into Complete Bouguer Anomalies (CBAs) and separated into regional and residual anomalies using a Butterworth filter. Then, First Horizontal Derivative (FHD) and Second Vertical Derivative (SVD) analyses were performed to clarify the anomaly boundaries and subsurface structures. Next, 2D geological modeling was performed on the residual anomaly data to determine the types and boundaries between subsurface formation layers. The results of the study showed significant variations in gravity anomalies, with high contrasts in the southwest and southeast areas, indicating differences in the density of subsurface rocks. FHD and SVD analyses successfully delineated suspected faults, especially in areas with contact layers between low-and high-density rocks. The 2D modeling showed that the contact layer between the Ngrayong-Tawun Formation and the Ngrayong-Bulu Formation has a weak bond, making it more vulnerable to triggers such as earthquakes. These results emphasize the importance of further study and disaster mitigation related to active faults in the region. For future research, it is necessary to conduct field surveys and integrate them with other geophysical methods to improve the accuracy of the results.

Abstract The Santa Marta impact structure in northeastern Brazil, recognized as a partially preserved complex crater, was investigated through an integrated geophysical study employing magnetotelluric (MT) and gravity methods. Our research provides constraints on the crater's subsurface architecture. The study utilized broadband MT data from 17 stations and gravity measurements from 226 stations distributed across the structure. The MT data revealed a distinct three‐layered resistivity profile: (i) a shallow resistive layer (100–1000 Ω·m) interpreted as impact breccias and Cretaceous sandstones, (ii) an intermediate conductive zone (1–50 Ω·m) correlated with Paleozoic shales of the Parnaíba Basin, and (3) most significantly, a deep‐seated conductive anomaly (1–20 Ω·m) beneath the central uplift. This deep conductivity anomaly likely results from impact‐induced fracturing coupled with subsequent fluid infiltration pathways. Gravity data exhibited asymmetric Bouguer anomalies (−41 to −27 mGal) that deviate from the typical circular pattern observed in impact structures. Density contrasts (0.3–1.8 g/cm 3 ) suggest substantial basement uplift and preferential erosional patterns. Dimensionality analysis of the MT data confirmed predominant 3‐D effects, necessitating 3‐D inversion techniques to accurately resolve the structure's complex geometry. The integrated resistivity and density contrast models reveal a subdivision of both the central uplift and the annular basin, and the asymmetric gravity signature may indicate postimpact deformation effects. Our results advance the understanding of the Santa Marta structure, establishing a robust geophysical framework for future investigations of similar structures in Brazil and globally. The study conclusively demonstrates that Santa Marta represents a highly complex impact structure in terms of both electrical resistivity and density distributions, directly reflecting its fundamental geological asymmetry.

The Azilal Province in the Central High Atlas (Morocco) provides an excellent natural laboratory to investigate how inherited basement structures and Triassic evaporitic décollements interact to control tectonic architecture during intraplate mountain building. Here we integrate gravity-based structural mapping with field structural observations to characterize the dominant structural trends and their crustal significance. We analyze the Bouguer anomaly data from the WGM2012 global gravity model and apply the horizontal gradient magnitude filtration and automatic lineament extraction using the CET grid analysis. The resulting lineament network highlights two principal fault systems trending NE-SW and NW-SE, with subordinate E-W to ENE-WSW lineaments. Euler deconvolution solutions cluster along these trends and indicate source depths of several kilometers, supporting the interpretation of a crustal-scale structural grain. Field observations (fold geometries, fault orientations, and kinematic indicators) corroborate the gravity-derived framework and show that both NE-SW and NW-SE structural families are expressed at the surface. In particular, a major NE-striking normal fault affecting the Toarcian-Bajocian succession records the persistence of inherited extensional discontinuities that influenced basin configuration and subsequent deformation. The spatial association between mapped diapiric belts and gravity-derived structural trends further suggests that salt mobilization was guided by pre-existing fault corridors and facilitated by evaporitic detachments. Overall, the combined geophysical and geological datasets indicate that basement inheritance and evaporite-controlled decoupling exert a first-order control on deformation style, basin segmentation and diapir localization in the Azilal segment, refining regional models for the evolution of the Central High Atlas.

The renewed quest for hydrocarbon prospectivity and to boost National and African continent has intensified in the search for viable oil and gas reserves in Nigeria. This has reawakened interest in the Sokoto basin as a potential zone for hydrocarbon potential in Sokoto basin, Northwestern Nigeria. The study was undertaken for the purpose of unravelling and characterizing the structural styles and regional trends of the earth’s sequence covering parts of Sokoto basin, North-West Nigeria. Aerogravity datasets were acquired from the Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (NGSA) via Bureau Gravimetrique Internationale (BGI), France. These datasets were acquired using a fixed-wing aircraft and processed to produce Bouguer anomaly map. Qualitative analysis was carried out using various Filtering techniques, including two-dimensional First Fourier transform (FFT2D), analytic signal, and horizontal and vertical derivatives. These enhanced data sets facilitated the mapping of structural features, faults, and potential reservoir seals. The Quantitative analysis was carried out using Euler Deconvolution techniques to estimate depth and define subsurface structures. Euler solution map (derived from Euler deconvolution technique) was used for the depth estimation in the Sokoto Basin due to its ability to quickly and effectively delineate subsurface structures, estimate the thickness of the sedimentary layers, location and geometry of subsurface causative bodies (primarily non-magnetic basement rock and overlying sediments thereby identifying the potential areas where that are favourable for hydrocarbon maturation and accumulation The gravity values in the total field ranged from -71.67 to -28.26 mgal. The 3D Euler Deconvolution techniques revealed the depth and locations of causative bodies that yielded the gravity field was found to be in the minimum range of 1482 to 2514m at an average depth of 2032m and the maximum range of 5653 to 6487m at an average depth of 6040m for structural Index zero (S.I=0). Overall, the study revealed important information on basin thickness, faulting, intrusive bodies, and structural configurations, providing essential data for resource exploration and development at local, national, and continental levels.

ABSTRACT The study aims to delineate the small intrusive bodies, intrusive zones, shear related sympathetic structures and add inputs in tectonic history at the contact zone of tectonically contrasting geological terranes, i.e., the Nallamallai group of Cuddapah Basin (CB), Nellore Schist Belt (NSB) and Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB), which are not evident in earlier regional scale studies. Detailed gravity, total field magnetic and radiometric surveys at station spacing of 500 m were collected over 700 km 2 area with 1486 stations. The Bouguer gravity anomaly and total‐field magnetic anomaly map intuitively delimits the contacts between these three geological terranes. Bouguer gravity anomaly reveal NE–SW trending weak zones that host low‐density granitic intrusions and denser gabbroic–dolomitic bodies, while total field magnetic data clearly delineate the CB–NSB–EGMB boundaries, major shear zones and localized high‐susceptibility BIF and mafic intrusive bodies in the studied area. Residual Bouguer gravity anomaly, radiometric total‐count and ternary data delineate younger granites, nepheline syenites, their subsurface extensions and uranium‐rich zones in the Vellikonda Shear Zone (VSZ). The results reveal that the VSZ and sympathetic structures in the EGMB extend from 0.5 to 3 km with eastward‐dipping geometries, consistent with oblique thrust and transpressional tectonics. Granitic intrusions occur at depths of 2 to 5 km, while relict NSB patches are observed at 1 to 3 km. Shallow intrusive roots along the VSZ range from 0.5 to 1 km, with maximum crustal involvement reaching approximately 5.13 km, highlighting emplacement along pre‐existing structural weaknesses and progressive shearing and faulting. Joint 2D gravity‐magnetic modelling and 3D density inversion are employed to delineate the subsurface geometry of intrusive bodies and the depth‐dependent dip variations of major shear zones across the EGMB. The conceptual geological model provides a detailed tectonic perspective, emphasizing the imprint of younger tectono‐thermal events on the pre‐existing crustal architecture. The findings suggest that low‐density intrusions are emplaced along shear‐related sympathetic structures, serving as pathways for both younger felsic plutons and mineral‐enriched hydrothermal fluids within a complex tectonic architecture of continental collision and accretion.

Crustal structure and major tectonic features of the South Caspian Basin: Insight from Bouguer gravity data

Gravity maps of Bouguer anomalies according to land and sea observations of scale 1,000,000 are compared with gravity anomalies in the satellite spherical EGM08_CBA_global_2190_2.5m model in territories of the Sea of Okhotsk and left-bank East Priamurye. Independent probabilistic-deterministic rheological interpretation of gravity anomalies in two systems of them description as a result of which the comparable models of spatial distributions of density differentiation (contrast) of the crust and a subcrustal mantle layers reflecting rheological states of geological media are received are executed. In both models rigid crystal blocks in the lower crust and zones of the lowered viscosity dividing them, corresponding to regional structures of stretching in the crust and subcrustal layers equally are reflected. The applicability of global spherical gravity EGM08 model for tectonic interpretation of regional anomalies Bouguer in scale M 1:1 000 000 is proved.

The Palu-Koro Fault in Central Sulawesi represents a highly active tectonic feature with significant seismic hazard potential, yet detailed subsurface mapping remains challenging due to the difficult terrain in the region. This study analyzed the subsurface structure of the fault zone by utilizing TOPEX satellite gravity data to overcome accessibility issues. The primary objective was to delineate the fault geometry and characterize subsurface lithological boundaries through density contrasts. The data processing stage initially determined the average surface rock density using the Parasnis method, which yielded a precise value of 2.45 grams per cubic centimeter. This density was subsequently applied to generate the Simple Bouguer Anomaly map. To distinguish between deep-seated regional trends and shallow local structures, the study employed two filtering approaches: the second-order polynomial method and the Moving Average method. The results demonstrated that both filtering techniques yielded consistent residual anomaly patterns. The main trace of the Palu-Koro Fault was clearly identified as a continuous low-anomaly zone, interpreted as a fracture system filled with low-density sedimentary deposits. Conversely, significant high-amplitude positive anomalies were detected adjacent to the fault trace, suggesting the existence of shallow high-density bodies such as igneous intrusions or uplifted basement blocks. This research concluded that the integration of satellite gravity data with regional-residual anomaly separation successfully mapped the structural complexity of the area, providing critical baseline data for updating seismic hazard models and enhancing disaster mitigation strategies in Sulawesi.

Java Island has several geothermal prospects, one of which is located in the Arjuno–Welirang area in East Java. The objective of this study is to determine the subsurface geological structures that have the potential to generate geothermal energy in the region. The study utilizes a gravity-based method that is based on the Global Gravity Model Plus. Complete Bouguer anomalies, first horizontal derivative, and second vertical derivative were analyzed to identify fault structures. Additionally, 2D modeling was performed using inversion modeling implemented in the ZondGM2D software. A total of six major faults were identified four normal faults and two reverse faults primarily distributed near active geothermal manifestations such as Padusan hot springs, Coban Hot Springs and Mount Welirang. Furthermore, 2D gravity inversion modeling was performed along two main profiles (A–A′ and B–B′). The inversion results revealed three key subsurface layers: (1) a low-density zone (<2.3 g/cm³) interpreted as a clay cap formed by hydrothermal alteration, (2) an intermediate-density reservoir zone (2.3–2.5 g/cm³) composed of fractured volcanic rocks, and (3) a high-density magmatic intrusion zone (>2.6 g/cm³) serving as the heat source.

This study investigates the inherited crustal architecture and concealed tectonic boundaries of the Kırşehir Massif, a key component of the Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex (CACC), using satellite‑derived potential field datasets. Earth Magnetic Anomaly Grid 2 (EMAG2) magnetic anomalies and World Gravity Map 2012 (WGM2012) Bouguer gravity data were analyzed together with multiple edge‑detection filters, including Total Horizontal Gradient (THG), Tilt Angle (TA), Theta Map (TM), and Tilt Angle of Horizontal Derivative Amplitude (TAHG), to enhance structural boundaries and identify subsurface discontinuities prior to geological interpretation. The enhanced magnetic and gravity fields reveal two principal lineament sets trending NW‑SE and NE‑SW, which coincide with major lithological contacts, fault zones, and the boundaries of the İzmir‑Ankara‑Erzincan Suture Zone (IAESZ) and Inner Tauride Suture Zone (ITSZ). Quantitative lineament classification based on azimuth and length statistics further confirms three dominant structural orientations (NW‑SE, NE‑SW, and E‑W), reflecting both inherited suture‑related structures and younger transtensional deformation. By integrating filtered anomaly gradients with regional geological constraints, this study provides the most detailed potential‑field‑based structural model of the Kırşehir Block to date and offers new insights into crustal inheritance, lithospheric segmentation, and the multi‑phase tectonic evolution of Central Anatolia.

The Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis (EHS), which is located at the southeastern edge of the Qinghai–Xizang Plateau, is a key region for understanding mountain‐building and subduction processes. Bouguer gravity anomalies derived from the Earth Gravitational Model 2008 free‐air anomaly data following topographic corrections, were analyzed. Wavelet multiscale decomposition and normalized full gradient methods were employed to analyze the data, revealing complex crustal density structures and fault depth characteristics in both the lateral and vertical dimensions. The results indicate significant lateral density variations within the crust, attributed to the wedging of the Indian Plate and partial melting of deep materials. The article also revealed several major faults that extend to 40 km in depth that potentially play crucial roles in regional stress release and material migration between the crust and mantle. Additionally, smaller faults at middle to shallow depths may influence the near‐surface stress distribution and the evolution of shallow crustal structures. The analysis of Bouguer gravity anomalies in the EHS provides new insights into the complex crustal density architecture of the EHS and improves our understanding of mountain‐building processes and subduction dynamics in this geologically significant region.

This study aims to identify subsurface geological structures in the Gunung Talang– Bukit Kili geothermal area, West Sumatra, using GGMPlus gravity data. The data were processed through latitude, free-air, Bouguer, and terrain corrections to produce the Complete Bouguer Anomaly (CBA). Spectral analysis indicates that the depth of the regional anomaly source is in the range of 10000 m. The Tilt Derivative (TDR) and Normalized Horizontal Tilt Derivative (TDX) methods were applied to delineate geological structural boundaries. Two dimensional forward modeling along a 24 km profile with a depth of 10 km shows rock density variations between 1,800–2,500 kg/m³, representing volcanic rocks, altered sediments, and metamorphic basement rocks. The 2D forward modeling identifies a northwest–southeast trending fault zone that acts as a pathway for hydrothermal fluid migration.

Abstract The processing and mapping of gravity exploration data have traditionally relied on spreadsheet tools and specialized software, making gravity method workflows tedious and time-consuming. To address this limitation, this paper introduces GExplor, a Python-based interactive web application designed to streamline data processing, graph and map visualization, and data interpretation. GExplor automates the processing of gravity exploration data, including standard corrections (tide, drift, free-air, and Bouguer), the application of the Parasnis method for density regression, and the generation of Free-Air and Simple Bouguer Anomaly maps through interpolation techniques. The evaluation of interpolation methods, namely Linear, Cubic, and Nearest Neighbour, shows that Linear interpolation produced lower statistical errors (RMSE, MAE, and R 2 ) because it directly fits the observation points. In contrast, Cubic interpolation generated smoother and more continuous contours that are consistent with the continuous nature of gravity anomalies and closely matched the results obtained from industry software such as Oasis Montaj, making it more suitable for geological interpretation. Nearest Neighbour, on the other hand, produced blocky artifacts that obscured structural features. Although the current implementation is limited to the Simple Bouguer Anomaly (SBA), which only accounts for the infinite slab correction, the platform has strong potential for further development. Future work will extend the workflow to the Complete Bouguer Anomaly (CBA), incorporate terrain corrections, and apply regional–residual separation to better distinguish deep-seated structures from shallow anomalies. The integration of additional geospatial datasets will also enhance GExplor’s capability to support more comprehensive geoscientific exploration, particularly in geothermal studies such as the ‘PB’ field case.

ABSTRACT The Kohima region, comprising the Naga‐Disang imbricated thrust belt of Schuppen, Brahmaputra foreland basin, and the adjoining Assam‐Arakan inner fold belt (IFB) of Indo Burmese ranges, is an important hydrocarbon province with environmental conditions that make it difficult for geophysical investigations. Here, we attempt the subsurface characterization of thrust–fold belts and synclinal basins using Bouguer gravity data. The source parameter imaging technique and tilt angle amplitudes of gravity data are used for estimating basement depths. The computed basement depth varies from 2 to 6 km, and overlying sediment thickness gradually increases eastward over the IFB. The inferred subsurface structures and tectonic fabric in this region mainly trend N–S, NNE–SSW, NE–SW, NW–SE, NWW–SEE and E–W. The selected gravity profiles and inversion‐modelling results provide insights into the concealed complex thrust geometry and basement configuration. We construct a conceptual model based on gravity modelling results, which bring out half‐graben structures and fault‐block features. These inferred structures are attributed to basement faults, steep anticlinal structures and synclinal basins that act as migration paths and oil traps and are potentially favourable zones for hydrocarbon resources.

Abstract The Jambi Sub-basin, a segment of the South Sumatran Basin, is a proven hydrocarbon region that remains underexplored. This research integrates gravity and seismic data to delineate subsurface structures and estimate the basin’s depth. Complete Bouguer Anomaly (CBA) maps were generated from satellite-based gravity data, applying terrain and Bouguer corrections. To distinguish between regional and residual anomalies, upward continuation was utilized. The study enhanced fault structure delineation using the Logistic Total Horizontal Gradient (LTHG), which improved the detection of boundaries by 30%. A novel aspect of this research is the application of a modified Parker-Oldenburg inversion, constrained by seismic data, to model the basin’s geometry. The results reveal NW-SE trending strike-slip faults that intersect half-graben structures formed during the Eocene-Oligocene rifting period. Low CBA values suggest the presence of thick syn-rift sediments with hydrocarbon potential, whereas high CBA values indicate uplifted basement structures. This interpretation was validated with well data, which confirmed the Gumai Formation as the primary reservoir, sealed by Miocene shales. This integrated approach successfully reduced interpretation uncertainty by 25% and produced a conceptual structural model that highlights new potential traps. Ultimately, this study presents a practical workflow that combines gravity and seismic data for more effective exploration in basins with complex structures.

Summary The Semail Ophiolite in Oman represents one of the well-preserved ophiolite complexes globally and provides a unique window into the processes of obduction. The emplacement of Semail ophiolite onto the Arabian lithosphere is a result of intra-oceanic subduction, was strongly influenced by inheritance features preserved from pre-obduction tectonic processes. Therefore, a detailed characterization of the crustal architecture and rheological properties of the lithosphere are essential for improving our understanding of obduction processes. In this study, we investigated the crustal structure and Moho depth beneath the central Oman Mountains through analysis of P-wave receiver functions (PRFs) and Bouguer gravity anomalies. We utilize broadband seismic data recorded at 12 seismic stations spanning the ophiolite belt and surrounding regions (Ghaba basin and Saih Hatat Dome). PRFs analysis reveals noticeable lateral variations in Moho depths ranging from ∼39 km beneath the sedimentary basin to ∼46 km beneath the ophiolite belt, and decreasing to ∼30 km underneath Saih Hatat Dome (SHD). 2D forward modeling of Bouguer gravity anomalies (−36 to 91 mGal) constraints with seismological results shows flexural bending of the Moho topography and thin crust (∼ 30 km) beneath the SHD. The 2D forward flexural modelling analysis suggests that lithospheric flexure is due to the emplacement of the ∼5 km thick Semail Ophiolite. The presence of a thin crust beneath the SHD is caused by Permian rifting and thinning of the continental lithosphere. The observed high value of Vp/Vs (1.75 – 1.87) also provides support for Permian mafic intrusions to the lower crust. The Arabian lithosphere exhibits lower mechanical strength in the southern region (Te = 25 km) relative to the northern area, a characteristic likely inherited from pre-obduction magmatic processes. These results provide new geophysical constraints on the crustal architecture of the southern Oman Mountains and emphasize the role of surface loading in shaping lithospheric structure during ophiolite emplacement.

The Paka geothermal field, located in the Northern Kenya Rift segment, is influenced by tectonic extension and magmatic activity that drives crustal uplift and hydrothermal circulation. While most previous gravity studies in this region targeted depths beyond 6 km, shallow intrusive structures crucial for geothermal resources remain poorly resolved. This study applied regional Bouguer anomaly mapping and 3D gravity inversion to characterise density variations, intrusive heat sources, and favourable structural settings for resource development. Gravity data were processed with a Bouguer density of 2.0417 g/cm3, anomaly separation through upward continuation, and 3D VOXI inversion in Geosoft Oasis. Results reveal a broad negative Bouguer anomaly (–126 to –103 mGal) about 20 km wide, with superimposed narrower anomalies (~5 km wide) in the northern caldera. These align with NW–SE, NE–SW, and N–S fault trends, consistent with regional tectonic structures. Near-surface pyroclastic sediments (0–250 m, 2.1–2.3 g/cm3) overlie a denser caprock (250–700 m, 2.25–2.45 g/cm3) interpreted as hydrothermally altered tuffs. At ~2.5 km depth, low-density zones (1.75–1.8 g/cm3) suggest water reservoirs or altered tuffs. A high-density mafic intrusion, likely of trachytic to basaltic magma origin, was identified between 2.0 and 3.1 km depth (volume ~475 ±10 % km3; 2.50–2.90 g/cm3), serving as the primary heat source. The associated reservoir beneath the summit lies at ~2.2 km depth with an estimated volume of 120 ±10 % km3. Structural continuity links Paka to Silale and Korosi volcanoes along the rift axis. The findings of this study highlight the summit region as the most promising drilling target for sustainable geothermal development.

The Datangpo-type Mn ore deposits in northeastern Guizhou (southern China) are a relatively newly discovered type of sedimentary exhalative manganese ore deposit. Previous three-dimensional geological modeling has revealed an NW-trending trough-like depression that obliquely intersects the ENE-trending Nanhua Rift within the Nanhua System in this area. This depression likely represents a paleorift that was present before the metallogenetic period; its intersection with the Nanhua Rift corresponds precisely with the area in which a series of super-large and large new-type Mn ore deposits are located. Here, we used remote sensing image processing techniques, along with hierarchical spatial data fusion and mining methods adopted for exploration, to investigate this paleorift. Specifically, Bouguer gravity data were used to obtain middle–lower-crust structural information; aeromagnetic ΔT data were used to obtain middle–upper-crust structural information; and remote sensing and outcrop data coupled with regional geological survey, mineral exploration, and geochemical exploration data were used to obtain near-surface structural information. Combining these data, we determined the control that different deep tectonic frameworks exert on the formation and distribution of Mn ore deposits within the study area. This study proposes a new conceptual method and technical protocol permitting an improved understanding of the material source and mineralization pattern of Mn ore deposits within the study area, while verifying the existence of the NW-trending Tongren Paleorift.