Archaeological Excavations Research Articles

FROM THE HEAT OF THE FIRE: A BIOGRAPHY OF AN EARLY BRONZE AGE BATTLE-AXE FROM CHURCH LAWTON, CHESHIRE

A battle-axe made of picrite from the Cwm Mawr rock source, near Hyssington, Powys, UK, was discovered during the archaeological excavation of two Early Bronze Age barrows at Church Lawton, near Alsager in Cheshire, UK, in 1982–3. It had been subjected to intense heat and then placed in a pit, next to the cremated remains of an adult, possibly a female. The heating has radically altered the appearance of the axe. Originally very smooth and dark grey-green, it now has a more granular and dusty feel, together with a mottled orange-reddish appearance. The Church Lawton battle-axe is particularly notable as it is among a small number of such artefacts in Britain to have been recovered from a barrow excavation conducted according to modern standards, as well as being directly associated with an interment dated by radiocarbon: 1893–1740 cal bc (3490 ± 29 bp). It is also the first implement from the Cwm Mawr rock source to be dated in this way. An initial examination of the battle-axe was conducted in the 1980s. A more exacting analysis of the object has now been undertaken, focusing on its petrology in relation to the rock source, its manufacture and use, and its heating. The new examination included the use of stereoscopic and metallographic microscopes. This paper details the new work and provides an enhanced understanding of the implement’s history and significance, emphasising the likely connections between the Early Bronze Age community at Church Lawton and others in the wider region.

Neither words nor materiality are enough: The role of testimony in the preservation of an Argentine clandestine detention center

The essay analyzes the efforts to preserve Club Atlético, a site that served as a clandestine detention, torture, and killing center under the Argentine civic-military dictatorship (1976–1983). Located in the south part of Buenos Aires, Club Atlético is a memory site in ruins: its materiality challenges architectural design conventions. Examining (1) historical artifacts, the (2) archeological excavation, and (3) a virtual reconstruction of Club Atlético, this article reveals the multiple ways in which a site of memory can be represented, beyond the traditional memorial. Focusing on these three scales, it explores the relationship between the many written and oral survivors’ testimonies and the material evidence retrieved from the site, while also recognizing the tensions that emerge from Club Atlético’s dual function as archeological site and space of memory. Ultimately, the article reveals, how testimony is used to draw physical and metaphorical boundaries between the site as a place of memory and the site as heritage.

Using the morphometric approach to analyze artificially modified crania from the late fifth millennium BCE settlement of Chega Sofla, southwestern Iran

AbstractThere have been archaeological and ethnographic reports of artificially modified crania from all continents. Archaeological excavations at the late fifth millennium BCE cemetery of Tol‐e Chega Sofla, located southwest of the Iranian plateau, also revealed these crania. This paper uses the morphometric approach to study Tol‐e Chega Sofla's modified crania. The outlines of normal and modified crania of Chega Sofla and Khuzestan residents' specimens were considered. How accurate is the morphometric approach in identifying and recognizing Chega Sofla's modified skulls from normal ones? Can it recognize small variations in the skull's morphology, such as the flattening of the squamous part of the occipital bone? The results of this method can be compared with descriptive studies. Finally, it is shown that the morphometric approach based on Elliptic Fourier Analysis can identify the deformed skull of Chega Sofla and its intensity, as well as the flattening of the squamous part of the occipital bone.

A Study on Myths and History of Indrathan, Dahachowk

Indradaha has its own cultural importance. There is a myth that "Indra", King of heaven during Satya Yuga came here and took bath. On every Bhadra Shukla Purnima Day, a day after Indra Jatra celebration in Basantapur, thousands of people visit this place for taking bath in this pond. Archaeology, the scientific study of the material remains of past human life and activities. Archaeological investigations are a principal source of knowledge of prehistoric, ancient, and extinct culture. In the Satyayuga, it is believed that King Indra of the heavens came and tied an elephant in a gold necklace and bathed in Indradaha. On the occasion of Indradaha bathing fair on the hill, it is considered to be a wonderful feature to fill Indradaha completely. This place has its own value including different myths and settled pattern of local people from the ancient era. To explore more about the Indrathan, the most famous deities were stablished i.e. Indra, Indrayani, Basuki, and other idols next to the Indra place are privileged to worship Ganesha, Surya, Durga, Bhairav, Garuda, and Saligram etc. another important aspect of explore this place is mythological significance is found in the Nepal Mahatma of chapter 185 under the snowy section of the skanda purana Most of the local people says about indrathan is related with indrajatra which is held in Kathmandu valley and another myth about kalu panday.

3D Modelling Approach to Enhance the Characterization of a Bronze Age Nuragic Site

Megalithism in Sardinia (Italy) had its highest expression during the Bronze Age with the creation of monumental complexes known as Nuraghes. These unique monuments have recently been the subject of in-depth investigations for their potential to be recognized as World Heritage Sites (by UNESCO). The main purpose of our research was to make a contribution to obtain a more in-depth characterization of these monuments by testing a 3D model of a complex Nuraghe, integrated with an analysis of the geolithological context. This work first focused on the geological and typological investigation of the materials used in its construction, which was then compared with the geolithological characteristics of the region. A survey of the outcropping remains was carried out by means of Structure-from-Motion Multi-View Stereo (SfM-MVS) photogrammetry with UAV ground and aerial acquisition using APS-C photo sensors, georeferenced with an RTK-GNSS ground survey. The level of accuracy of our digital models shows the potential of the proposed method, giving accurate and geometrically consistent 3D reconstructions in terms of georeferencing error, shape and surface. The survey method allows for the virtualization of the current state of conservation of the Nuraghe, giving a solid basis to set up further (future) archaeological excavations and to contribute to knowledge on the architecture of the structures. This study also provides useful information on the nature and origin of the construction materials and proposes a hypothesis on the original dimensions of the monument, which is often a topic of debate in the world of archaeology.

Shell Mounds of the Dian Lake

This article provides data on the search and study of the finds obtained during archaeological excavations of shell mounds in the region of Dian Lake in Yunnan Province, China. These objects represent a common, but at the same time, quite specific category of archaeological sources containing important information about the material and spiritual life of the population that left them. From the considerable number of Yunnan køkkenmøddings, the ancient fortified settlement of Guchengcun attracted the most attention, during the excavations of which it was possible for the first time to reveal the direct sequence of the Pre-Dian and Early Dian stages, dating back to the period of 3500– 2500 years BC, which are characterized by a unique set of ceramic and bronze implements. These finds give us the opportunity to express preliminary considerations regarding the origin of the Dian culture and state. Some part of the ceramics is similar to the vessels of the local Neolithic culture of Baiyangcun, which had contacts with the Neolithic painted pottery of the Yellow River valley; another part of it, as well as jade half-rings and sea shells, indicating a connection with the coastal cultures of Eastern China. Bronze knives and daggers are probably related in origin to the population of Northern China and adjacent territories. The interaction of these factors formed the basis of the Dian culture, while the contacts with the northern peoples outlined a line of interaction, following which the “horseback culture” later penetrated into Yunnan, shaping the formation of the Dian state.

An Examination of Bronze Vessel Technology in the Unified Silla Period: Case Study on the Bronzes Excavated from Gwanbuk-ri Site in Buyeo

Archaeological excavations in Buyeo had revealed Bronze vessels interred within a hole in the building at the Gwanbuk-ri site. These bronze vessels are dated to the Unified silla period (9-10th centuries). To identify the bronze vessels’ manufacturing technology, metallurgical analyses were carried out using Optical Microscopy, SEM-EDS and EPMA. The results allowed a reconstruction of the manufacturing process of bronze vessels in the Unified silla. It proved that bronze vessels were manufactured with Cu-Sn alloy with varying tin contents, which may be related to the application of uncontrolled procedures in making the bronze alloys. Also a casting process was used to shape the bronze vessels and the strength and hardness of the container were improved through a quenching process. Twins were observed in one of the samples, so it was assumed that hot working had been attempted. Non-metallic inclusions in bronze vessels have circular or polygonal shapes, and Cu and S were detected. The presence of Cu-S inclusions showed the probable use of copper sulphide ores for metal production and smelting. Se and Te in the inclusions of the bronze vessels show that the copper ore is different. From the results of metallurgical analyses of bronze vessels excavated from other regions of the same era, casting and quenching treatments were confirmed, and the sequential relationship of the technological system was revealed.

Analysis of the ruined murals from the Resurrection Church of the Derevyanitsky Monastery (Veliky Novgorod, Russia): Dating and attribution

The Resurrection Church of the Derevyanitsky Monastery, one of the most significant historical and architectural monuments of Veliky Novgorod, was founded in 1335 by Archbishop Moses of Novgorod, painted by the order of Archbishop Vasily Kalika in 1348, and subsequently rebuilt several times, the last one at the end of 17th century. In the course of archeological excavations in 2013–2015, fragments of wall paintings were discovered, presumably dating back to 1348. A total of 63 fragments were examined using following analytical techniques: neutron activation and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, Raman and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, polarized microscopy, and stratigraphic analysis. Set of pigments and wall painting structure were revealed. The indirect dating was implemented based on statistical treatment of experimental data. Additionally, methods of humanities were applied, such as content and comparative analysis of manuscripts, proved by archeological sources. This approach allowed to make an assumption about painting authorship, as well as to trace artistic contacts of Novgorod with the Byzantine world.

강원지역 입보용 산악산성의 현황과 특징

‘Mountain’ means ‘high, rugged mountains.’ This mountainous terrain is one of the geographical features of the Gangwon region, and fortresses are located here and there in the mountains. In this paper, I would like to summarize the contents of fortresses in mountainous areas for entry among the mountain fortress data accumulated to date in the Gangwon region and briefly look at their characteristics. The fortress to be discussed in this paper will be examined with a focus on ruins for which archaeological investigation has been conducted at least once. The ruins are seven fortresses, including Gwongeumsanseong in Sokcho, Hangyesanseong in Inje, Dootasanseong in Donghae, Samaksanseong in Chuncheon, Yeongwonsanseong in Wonju, and JeongyangsanseongㆍTaehwasanseong in Yeongwol. The common characteristics of these fortresses are that they built walls using the rugged natural terrain (mountains) and used natural cliffs as walls to defend against invasion from the outside. The fortress wall surrounds the valley, making it easy to secure a water source, and is built in layers. Since the natural surface was used, the planar shape of the fortresses is not constant (irregular). In addition, the area of the mountain fortress is wide to maximize the living space inside, creating conditions for long-term staging. In addition, most of the mountain fortresses have historical facts related to the Khitan, Mongolia, etc., so they have something in common that shows national patriotism. Most of the artifacts excavated through archaeological investigations also correspond to this period. There is a study that shows that there is a lack of planning in the construction of mountain fortresses for entry in the Gangwon region. However, looking at the common characteristics of the fortresses mentioned above, it appears that there was sufficient planning. In addition, due to the rugged terrain, it is believed that it was only managed by the town police station in normal times, but when war broke out, it took on that role. From literature and archaeological investigations, it is believed that most mountain fortresses in the Gangwon region were built for the purpose of staging a sit-in. It can be said that the fortresses were built during the Goryeo Dynasty and operated until the Joseon Dynasty. However, the outer castle of Jeongyangsanseong in Yeongwol is different in that it was built with walls in addition to the inner wall built during the Three Kingdoms period and was operated until the Joseon Dynasty, but the characteristics of castles in other mountainous terrains in the Gangwon region are similar. For mountain fortresses in Korea, the English expressions “castle” and “fortress” are often used. In preparing this article, I believe that the large fortress wall located on the rugged mountainous terrain during the Goryeo Dynasty also had the meaning of “a shelter”.

Rediscovering Copperopolis: The Hafod Plate Rolling Mill, Swansea

ABSTRACT In 2021, Swansea University commissioned Black Mountains Archaeology Ltd to undertake a community archaeological excavation as part of a National Lottery Heritage Funded activity plan. The excavation was undertaken on the site of the former Hafod Plate Rolling Mill in Swansea, South Wales, UK, within which copper plates intended for both national and international shipment were produced between 1910 and 1980. The rolling mill represented one of the largest structures within the Lower Swansea Valley — also known as ‘Copperopolis’. Moreover, the mill formed part of the Hafod (and later Hafod-Morfa) Copperworks — one of the largest copper production sites in the world at the time. Within this article, the results of the 2021 excavation will be detailed. During the excavation, features associated with steam power supply, annealing, pickling and finishing were recorded. By comparing the excavation results with available cartographic and documentary evidence of the copperworks, this article outlines a detailed picture of the operations once conducted within the rolling mill, therefore bringing the mill back to life.

Last interglacial in western Europe: 20 years of multidisciplinary research on the Eemian (MIS 5e) calcareous tufa sequence at Caours (Somme basin, France) – a review

The calcareous tufa sequence and associated Palaeolithic site of Caours were discovered in 2002 during a test‐pit campaign aimed at identifying last interglacial (MIS 5e) archives in the fluvial terrace system of the Somme basin, northern France. The presence of an outstanding stratigraphical succession with four in situ Palaeolithic layers within the tufa sequence has motivated archaeological excavations of the site since 2005. The first malacological studies and U‐series ages quickly showed that the sequence was mainly deposited during the Eemian interglacial (MIS 5e). After 20 years of investigations, we propose here a summary of this multidisciplinary research project including stratigraphy, sedimentology, geochronology, geochemistry, malacology, mammals, palaeovegetation and archaeology. By combining 25 dates obtained by U‐series, ESR/U‐series, TL and OSL methods, the Caours calcareous tufa sequence is securely dated to the Eemian (123.1±2.8 ka). Based on the summary of the whole information, we propose a robust and detailed reconstruction of the modification of the valley environments between the Late Saalian and the Early Weichselian. At the scale of northwestern Europe, Caours provides a reference terrestrial molluscs record for the Eemian interglacial, including the climatic optimum, that is also described in the same layers by δ18O and δ13C analyses on calcite and by mammal remains. Moreover, the 300‐m‐long transect crossing the fluvial terrace covered by the tufa sequence and the bottom valley formation, combined with the chronology established from U‐series and OSL ages, shows that the incision of the present‐day valley, leading to the setting of the Very Low Terrace, was achieved during the first stages of the Early Weichselian (MIS 5d–5c). From an archaeological point of view, the configuration of the Caours site is unique at the scale of western Europe and demonstrates the adaptation of Neandertals to a forested environment and to fully temperate conditions during the Eemian.

Ancient DNA and paleoproteomic analysis on Roman Imperial-era individuals from Histria, Romania

Ancient biomolecules have become an increasingly important part of archaeological investigations interested in understanding population movements and health. Despite their ability to elucidate historically-attested contexts of human mobility and interaction between different cultural groups, biomolecular techniques are still underutilized in certain historical and archaeological contexts. One such context is the Roman Imperial limes, or border zone, along the lower reaches of the Danube, which saw more than five hundred years of migration, conflict, and accommodation among a wide range of populations, from Mediterranean settlers to steppe pastoralists. In this region, more than a century of archaeological investigation has unearthed the remains of tens of thousands of Roman-era individuals. However, only a limited number of contexts have undergone biomolecular analyses. While these deceased humans may offer an untapped reservoir of biomolecular information, many were collected during a period when the standard precautions and protocols for ancient biomolecular research were not yet established. Because contamination is a major barrier for successfully recovering ancient DNA and proteins, conducting a pilot study to assess bimolecular preservation of a small representative dataset of human remains before embarking on a more extensive research program may prevent unnecessary sampling. This study applies ancient DNA and paleoproteomic techniques to human remains from a Roman-period cemetery at Histria, a site located just south of the Danube at the edge of the Roman province of Moesia Inferior. The individuals from whom we sampled dentin and dental calculus were excavated between the 1940s and 1980s and were housed at the Francisc J. Rainer Institute since. Our results suggest that both microbial and human ancient DNA is preserved in the dental calculus and dentin samples. We also successfully recovered sex-specific amelogenin peptides in tooth enamel from three individuals, including a juvenile. In conclusion, our results are encouraging, signifying the feasibility of future aDNA and paleoproteomic research for this skeletal collection. Our analyses also showcase how sex estimation with genomic and proteomic methods may contradict traditional osteological approaches. These findings not only offer deeper insights into the lives of these individuals but also show promise for the investigation of broader anthropological questions, such as the impact of Roman annexation in this region.

Why together? Archaeology and zoology about medieval leather products on the example of Szczecin

Abstract Many years of archaeological excavation brought to light a rich material, that can be used in research of topics important from a social and economic point of view, such as the character of the production and/or organization, the development of technique and production technology, or the assortment of goods. A deep analysis of the selected categories of artifacts, in this case made of leather, can be used for a double purpose – a reconstruction of the process and conditions of early medieval leather craft formation, as well as a presentation of their role and significance in the activity structure of the inhabitants of Szczecin. Such an attempt to grasp the rules governing the development of one of the most important production branches – leatherworking, has been undertaken on the basis of leather objects that can be found on a mass scale in Szczecin’s cultural layers dated for the period from the early 10th to the mid-13th century. Key to these studies are the results of zoological analyses, which perfectly complement the archaeological conclusions.

In the shadow of the Lammermuirs

Wessex Archaeology completed archaeological investigations on the Onshore Transmission Works for the Neart na Gaoithe Offshore Wind Farm between 2015 and 2021. These included geophysical survey, evaluation trenching, targeted strip, map and sample excavations, and watching briefs on the cable route and associated infrastructure between the landfall at Thorntonloch and the grid connection at Crystal Rig II Wind Farm, both in East Lothian. The investigations found that few archaeological features were present within the section of the cable route within the coastal plain between Thorntonloch and Innerwick, and within the upland area approaching Crystal Rig (excluding the medieval township of Boonslie). Features relating to a wide range of periods, dominated by the prehistoric, were found within the transitional zone to the south-west of Innerwick between the Lammermuir foothills and the coastal plain. These included an Early Neolithic pit cluster and possible trackway, pits dated to the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, and a Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age pit alignment. Within the immediate area of the pit alignment there was also evidence for later Iron Age and early medieval occupation. The cable route was designed to avoid the extant remains of Boonslie, an upland medieval township around the headwaters of the Boonslie Burn, but some previously undetected earthworks were uncovered and investigated, as well as the earliest dated feature found in the works: a pit containing burnt material dating to the Mesolithic. The excavations also uncovered evidence for the deliberate landscaping of agricultural fields during the post-medieval and modern period to give a greater area of cultivatable terrain.

Eastern Bloc Agents in West Germany

This paper highlights how contemporary archaeology can contribute to our knowledge of contemporary history, in a case where written sources no longer exist and any surviving protagonists either will not or cannot divulge what they know. Its focus is on a Soviet spy radio from the last years of the Cold War which was discovered during a recent archaeological excavation in Germany’s Rhineland. The radio was probably produced in 1987 and was soon afterwards concealed in woodland, most likely by someone working for Soviet military intelligence, the GRU. The findspot is close to various Cold War military installations involving nuclear weapons, and the radio would have enabled the swift transmission of military information into the Eastern Bloc that would have been useful in the event of war. As rare archaeological evidence of espionage, the radio can also help us to understand continuities between the Cold War and the present time.

Magnetic and GPR Data Modelling via Multiscale Methods in San Pietro in Crapolla Abbey, Massa Lubrense (Naples)

ABSTRACTWe performed magnetic and GPR measurements to image the buried ruins of the Middle Age abbey San Pietro in Crapolla, on the Sorrento‐Amalfi Coast (Massa Lubrense, Southern Italy). The site represents an important religious location, which is nowadays partially buried along the cliff. An integrated study was necessary to map the buried structures and address the archaeological excavation. For this reason, we carried out the surveys on two main grids in order to reconstruct the structures of the abbey and of its related church. The magnetic data were filtered through the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) and then transformed to total gradient maps. The obtained maps were interpreted with depth from extreme points (DEXP) imaging method to assess the horizontal and depth positions of the top. The GPR data were processed and time‐depth converted. Results from the integrated interpretation of these data suggest the possible presence of different vaulted rooms and an elongated structure at 0.3‐m depth from ground surface. This latter is interpretable in terms of perimetral and internal walls of the abbey and its church. These outcomes were crucial to successfully address archaeological excavations, which targeted one of the modelled areas and unearthed a wall at the predicted depths.

Geochemical Evolution in Historical Time of Thermal Mineral Springs at Campetti Southwest (Veii, Central Italy) through Geoarcheological Investigation

A multidisciplinary study, involving hydrogeological, geochemical, and mineralogical analyses, was conducted to define the evolution of thermal mineral springs in the Sabatini Volcanic District (SVD) (Central Italy) in a historic period. The outcomes were integrated with the archeological findings to improve the knowledge of the evolution of Veii, a settlement established since the Iron Age and later expanded by Etruscans and Romans. During the archeological excavations, water-related buildings were identified, especially at the Campetti Southwest site in the Veii settlement. Votive inscriptions also suggest the presence of buildings linked to sacred waters, even if a clear definition of the source and type of water is missing. In the SVD, some low-flow thermal mineral springs are present as a result of the mixing of thermal and CO2-rich groundwater from the deep carbonate aquifer and the cold, shallow volcanic aquifer. Mineralogical and chemical analyses characterized the travertine and Fe-hydroxide deposits on Roman tanks and walls in Campetti Southwest and in a nearby ancient Roman bath along the Valchetta River. These deposits showed different relative concentrations of sedimentary and volcanic-related elements, testifying a geochemical evolution of the groundwater mixing and the presence of a paleothermal mineral spring in Campetti Southwest.

Archaeological Investigations of Honnavar Fort in Uttara Kannada District of Karnataka, India Using Geospatial Technology

Archaeological Investigations of Honnavar Fort in Uttara Kannada District of Karnataka, India Using Geospatial Technology

Sole Survivors: Using Tree-Trunk Wells from Archaeological Excavations to Inform Reconstructions of Medieval Deforestation, and Future Reforestation

Abstract This paper represents an attempt at a detailed analysis of woodland presence and dynamics during the Middle Ages (AD 500-1500), as a contribution to the current debate on large-scale reforestation in the Netherlands. Palynological data for this particular period are scarce and allow only global reconstructions. To widen our search for historical woodland proxies, we investigated the potential of archaeologically excavated tree-trunk wells. We carried out a nation-wide inventory of this type of well, in which the shaft is formed by hollowed-out tree trunks, typically large oak trees. Our suspicion that such trees indicate the local presence of (old) woodland in the past was confirmed by a marked positive correlation with spatial reconstructions based on other sources of information: archaeological (charcoal kilns) and non-archaeological (place names and historical references). The observed correlations suggest that mapping the distribution of precisely dated tree-trunk wells can indeed contribute to achieving fairly detailed reconstructions of medieval woodland cover.

The fortified site at Lanaken near Maastricht (Belgium/the Netherlands). New insights on early medieval military and elite strategies in the middle Meuse valley

Archaeological excavation near Maastricht (the Netherlands) in the town of Lanaken (Belgium) revealed a previously unknown wooden‐and‐earth fortified site dating back to c.650–800. The fortification's construction, layout and dimensions are indicative of Roman military practice, suggesting active application of this practice during the early medieval period. This research delves into the implications of this discovery, shedding light on early medieval military strategies in the region and providing insights into potential historical contexts surrounding the fortified sitecation's construction and use. In so doing, it makes an important contribution to ongoing discussions regarding the nature of early medieval military organization and elite society.