Introduction Much public discourse and literature on the South African land question revolves around the slow pace of land reform, weak tenure security, failed land reform projects, expropriation debates and other matters. However, fewer studies have assessed how access to land, land use and the power of traditional leaders have changed the status quo. Methodology The study draws evidence from the broader national project commissioned by the South African government to understand current farming practices, land access, and governance in seven provinces, to inform the norms and standards that will guide land subdivision and change. The research project was meant to inform the Preservation and Development of Agricultural Land Act (Act 39 of 2024; PDALA), which President Cyril Ramaphosa signed in January 2025. Using the Agrarian Political Economy as a guiding framework, this study was concerned with the dynamics of land-allocation power, the various class differences, the role of the state, and the shifting conceptions of land toward commodification. Results This qualitative study found that colonial and apartheid legacies still shape land access and that accessing land has become a challenge because of the limited availability of vacant land. Plot sizes issued to households are increasingly becoming much smaller than those issued 30 years ago. Land access remains harder for the poor, and, in some villages, it is contingent on having the means to develop the land, although women can access land, albeit in dire straits. While rural households have, in general, left arable field cultivation, they continue to cultivate gardens adjacent to homesteads and keep livestock. This paper holds that traditional leaders still wield disproportionate political power over communities, in a paternalistic way, even though there is a general feeling among local communities that their tenure is relatively secure.

Pesticides can harm non-target soil fauna and plant communities. Their influence may extend to sites adjacent to agricultural fields, including protected areas. We measured contamination (type, number and concentration) of currently used pesticides and the physicochemical parameters in soils of agricultural fields and adjacent dry grasslands in two regions of Germany. We assessed their effects on community structure and species diversity of vegetation, soil nematodes and oribatid mites to see whether they were comparable between groups. The fields had higher pesticide numbers and concentrations compared to the grasslands, and lower species richness for all three taxonomic groups. We found a significant negative correlation between the total number of pesticides in a soil sample and the species richness of plants and nematodes. In addition, herbicide mixtures reduced species richness of plants and root-feeding nematodes, and fungicide mixtures reduced species richness of plants and nematodes. There was no clear effect of pesticides on oribatid mites. The inconsistent response of different taxa to pesticides calls for usage of natural communities in impact assessments. Pesticide effects in protected sites near agricultural fields suggest establishment of buffer zones. • We studied responses of soil fauna and vegetation to pesticide contamination. • Pesticide mixtures reduce nematode and plant richness in arable fields and bordering grasslands. • Herbicides reduce nematode root feeder and plant richness, fungicides plant and nematode richness. • Effects partially override abiotic parameters in arable fields. • Results suggest use of buffer zones and natural communities in pesticide risk assessments.

Wild geese form large flocks, benefiting from shared vigilance against predators which increases feeding time. As spring progresses, males invest more in mate-guarding to protect paternity, so we hypothesised that intraspecific aggression would rise with flock size and proximity to first egg dates. We tested this using field observations of four goose species staging in northeast Poland, February–April: one local breeder (nesting in March) and three Arctic-nesting species (laying from late May). Of 662 observed aggressive episodes, 643 (97%) were intraspecific, and aggression in all species increased with flock size. Locally breeding Greylag Geese Anser anser and Arctic-nesting Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis showed consistently high probabilities of aggression (60–80%) throughout, although Barnacle sample sizes were too small for firm conclusions. The other two Arctic-nesting species (Greater White-fronted Anser albifrons and Tundra Bean Goose A. serrirostris) showed aggression rising initially from zero to similarly high levels in the three weeks before departure for nesting areas. No differences were found between geese feeding on grassland versus arable fields (which offered higher food intake). We conclude that the predominance of intraspecific aggression is consistent with increasing mate-guarding (and related close-range social defence) as spring progresses relative to species-specific nesting schedules, and is unlikely to be driven primarily by interspecific competition for food or other types of interactions.

In arable fields, earthworm abundance declines with the level of intensification, due to soil disturbance and reduced food resources. In this context, continuous cropping of monocultures and removed plant residues are drivers for a decline in earthworm populations. Therefore, the earthworm communities of the 'Eternal rye', a 116-year field trial, were investigated. The Eternal rye was instigated in 1906 Vienna, Austria, mainly to compare the application of mineral fertiliser, farmyard manure (FYM) and no fertiliser application (unfertilised). A two-factorial design with factor fertiliser comprised of FYM, mineral fertiliser and unfertilised and factor crop rotation with levels crop rotation of winter rye ( Secale cereale L.) – spring barley ( Hordeum vulgare L.) – bare fallow) versus continuous cropping of winter rye. All plots were ploughed (25-30 cm) at the same time, after the application of FYM and before sowing of rye in late October. Earthworms were investigated for continuous rye and rye in crop rotation in April 2020-2022 by hand sorting. Results show that only fertilisation treatments impacted earthworm communities with highest total abundances under FYM (120 ± 92.9 m − 2 ) followed by mineral fertiliser (27.6 ± 21.4 m − 2 ) and unfertilised (9.55 ± 9.27 m − 2 ). The most abundant species was Allolobophora chlorotica under FYM and mineral fertiliser, followed by small numbers of Aporrectodea caliginosa , Aporrectodea rosea and Lumbricus terrestris . Interestingly, L. terrestris was observed only under FYM (2.69 ± 7.81 m − 2 ). Similar to earthworm parameters, soil organic carbon, NO 3 − -N and leaf area index were highest for FYM compared to mineral and unfertilised within and across cropping systems, while soil decomposition rate was highest for FYM only in continuous rye. The application of FYM compensated the effect of conventional management practices, such as monoculture and ploughing on earthworms and enhanced numbers of endogeic earthworm and L. terrestris compared to mineral and unfertilised treatments. • Lumbricus terrestris were only found in farmyard manure (FYM) across cropping systems. • All earthworm parameters were higher for FYM than mineral fertiliser or unfertilised. • Endogeic earthworm abundance was higher for crop rotation (CR) than monoculture (MC). • Soil organic carbon was highest for FYM and higher for MC than CR. • Litter decomposition rate was highest for FYM-CR and higher for CR than MC.

Birds of prey and photovoltaic installations in an intensively managed agricultural landscape: year-round habitat use across different habitats.

Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as settlements and semi-natural habitats such as arable fields, pastures, and managed woods. the purposes and activities through which people interact with land and terrestrial ecosystems and as the total of arrangements, activities, and inputs that people undertake in a certain land type. Land use by humans has a long history, first emerging more than 10,000 years ago. Land use is one of the most important drivers of global environmental change. It is very difficult to study land use on primary data. Because these data are close to impurity, hence it is appropriate to study on secondary data which is accurate, that is why Landsat data has been used in this study paper and ArcMap version 10.8 has been used to analyze it. This is the study year. This paper has been done between 2008 and 2022. Based on the LULC data of 2008 and 2022, predictions for 2023 and further years have been made. After this analysis, it has been found that with the increasing population and climate change. There is a change in the land use pattern, and decrease in agricultural land and an increase in the built-up area.

Time-dependent biodiversity development in arable fields created by post-mining reclamation

Summary National and continental-scale bird monitoring schemes, such as the Pan-European Common Bird Monitoring Scheme (PECBMS), are essential for tracking bird population trends across broad spatial scales. However, while these frameworks provide invaluable data for population monitoring, they may be less accurate in estimating species densities at small spatial scales, particularly for habitat-specialist species like the Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio. This species is listed in Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, and its effective monitoring is a legal conservation obligation for EU Member States under the Natura 2000 framework. Ensuring accurate data on its population status is therefore critical for meeting international biodiversity targets. To evaluate this limitation, we compared density estimates from the Common Breeding Birds Survey (MPPL) with those obtained from intensive, targeted surveys across 53 study plots, each covering an area of 1 km², in eastern Poland. Although density estimates from MPPL and the targeted field study were correlated, a deeper analysis revealed that MPPL (2.1 individuals/km²) consistently underestimated densities recorded during targeted surveys (3.9 breeding pairs/km²). Using Generalised Linear Models (GLMs), we explored the habitat characteristics that may contribute to these discrepancies. Only two predictors, i.e. the proportion of buffer zones around arable fields and around mixed crops, were significantly associated with underestimation. In both cases, a higher share of buffer zones led to a greater difference between MPPL and targeted estimates, indicating that landscape structure influences detectability. Differences in survey timing between the two approaches, with MPPL visits conducted earlier in the breeding season, coupled with species-specific breeding behaviours (including peak activity later in the breeding season) may have influenced these differences. This study highlights that although bird surveys are an indispensable tool for analysing trends and comparing densities between surfaces over large spatial domains, their usefulness for studies at small spatial scales may be limited.

This study investigates soil biodiversity in agricultural landscapes and focuses on the Nevesinje field in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was sampled as part of the Neretva Science Week 2023. Soil microarthropods, including mites and springtails, play an important role in ecosystem health through nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition. Using separate approaches — morphological techniques with the QBS-ar index and metabarcoding of DNA extracted from soil samples — we investigated the diversity and abundance of soil microarthropods at different sites. Our results showed that the arable field had the highest abundance of soil microarthropods, especially Acarina and Collembola, while the orchard had the lowest abundance but the highest QBS-ar value, which reflects higher soil quality according to the QBS-ar index. Insects (Insecta) dominate with 68.6% of identified taxa, followed by arachnids (Arachnida) with 20.2%. The arable field next to the Zalomka River showed the highest taxonomic richness. The area faces imminent threats from the proposed dam construction, which could alter the hydrological dynamics and integrity of the habitat. Continued monitoring and further sampling are important to assess the ecological impact and develop conservation strategies to maintain soil biodiversity amid developmental pressures.

ABSTRACT How much does weed biomass increase if one abstains weed control in a single year, and would that increase involve weed species that may be beneficial to pollinating insects? To answer these questions, data on weed biomass were analysed from untreated and chemically treated plots in nearly 2000 field experiments conducted in spring- and autumn-sown cereal crops in Sweden. About 50% of the weed biomass was of the 30 species classified as ‘pollinator friendly’ based on the amounts of pollen and/or nectar produced. Increases were slightly larger in autumn- than spring-sown crops. The increase in biomass varied somewhat geographically and due to soil type, while type of crop seemed less important. Most important for the increase was the overall abundance of weeds in a field. We conclude that applying a single-year no-treatment strategy would be most suited in fields with relatively low weed abundance. Considering the low cost, potential acreage covered and assumed biodiversity benefit, such a strategy might be a preferable environmental mitigation method. To further evaluate this potential mitigation methods, data on biodiversity and pollinator visits to weed flowers within arable fields would be welcome, as well as potential side effects, like weed control challenges in following years.

In the spring of 2025, a renewed surface reconnaissance was conducted in the eastern borderlands of Podhale and the Polish part of the Spiš region. The changing landscape, marked by increased vegetation and the transformation of arable fields into meadows, posed challenges for identifying previously known sites. Despite these difficulties, several new Stone Age sites were discovered, including artefacts made of radiolarite and Jurassic flint. The finds, located in areas such as Cisowa Rock, Nowa Biała, and Dursztyn, provide insights into prehistoric settlement patterns and raw material usage. The study highlights the importance of regular field surveys in cultivated areas and outlines future directions for archaeological research in the region.

Importance of short rotation coppice strips within a modern alley cropping agroforestry system as habitat and potential biotope network element for forest carabids (Coleoptera: Carabidae) – Alley cropping agroforestry systems with short-rotation coppice strips (CS) are novel land use systems in which rows of fast-growing trees are integrated between arable fields to simultaneously produce woody bio- mass and crops. CS introduce new structures and habitats into intensively used agricultural landscapes. We investigated the habitat function of two CS-variants for carabid beetles on an experimental site in Lower Sa- xony (Northern Germany) with a particular focus on their potential as habitat and biotope network element for forest species. The CS-variants included (1) CS-K: conventional variant with poplar clones harvested in short intervals, and (2) CS-A: incorporating aspen trees with longer rotation periods in addition to poplar clones. In addition, we surveyed various woody habitats in the surrounding landscape (woodland, tree row, hedgerow, short-rotation coppice (SRC) plantation) to determine the forest species inventory and potential source habitats/populations of forest carabids, and to compare their habitat function with the CS-variants. Carabid beetles were sampled with pitfall traps from late March to early October 2024. Both CS variants, like the hedgerow and the SRC, were dominated by eurytopic species. Among the total of 11 forest species detected in the reference habitats forest and tree row (including Carabus glabratus and Abax parallelus, two relict species of ancient woodland), only two species associated with light and open forests (Carabus coria- ceus and Limodromus assimilis) were recorded in low numbers within the CS, the hedgerow, and the SRC. The carabid beetle assemblages of the two CS-variants were similar in terms of species richness and com-po- sition. We conclude that the studied CS currently hold no significant value as habitat and potential biotope network element for forest carabids in the considered landscape. We consider their potential to develop into suitable habitat or ecological corridors for forest species to be low, as their already limited habitat potential is regularly reduced by harvesting at short intervals, and the CS will be removed as planned in 10–15 years due to the declining resprouting capacity of the trees. However, we assume that CS can enhance carabid beetle diversity compared to arable fields lacking woody structures and may enhance landscape permeability for species that tend to avoid intensively used, structurally simplified agricultural landscapes.

Design-based soil sampling strategy for unbiased and precise soil characteristics in arable fields

Post-communist transformations have led to significant land cover changes in Giurgiu County, Romania, resulting from a shift in land management practices. The area transitioned from a collectivized agricultural system to liberalized farming methods in the early 1990s, followed by the emergence of centralized management under large-scale agricultural enterprises. Currently, Giurgiu County is characterized by a predominantly agricultural landscape, with 77.8% of its area used for agricultural purposes as of 2022. Arable land is particularly notable, comprising 73.4% of the county’s total area in 2022. These lands are primarily cultivated with cereal crops and oilseed plants. The natural landscape quality is markedly influenced in certain administrative-territorial units by the dominance of arable fields.

BACKGROUNDEnvironmental heterogeneity in agricultural landscapes is a key driver of biodiversity and ecological processes, yet its role in shaping the population dynamics of pest species remains insufficiently studied. In central Europe, post‐war collectivisation led to widespread homogenisation of farmland, notably through the enlargement of arable fields. This study examined the effects of this structural simplification by assessing the relationship between field size, a key configurational component of landscape heterogeneity in farmland, and the abundance of the common vole (Microtus arvalis), a major agricultural pest, monitored in forage fields over 7 years in the Czech Republic.RESULTSLinear mixed models, accounting for season, crop type and altitude, revealed a robust, nonlinear positive relationship between field size and vole population density, with the most pronounced effect in fields smaller than 20 ha. Alfalfa fields consistently supported the highest vole densities in autumn, indicating that both habitat quality and patch size jointly influence vole abundance.CONCLUSIONThis study provides the first empirical evidence of a positive density–area relationship in voles, challenging theoretical expectations and previous field evidence predicting negative or neutral responses in ground‐dwelling species. The findings have important implications for nationwide pest management and landscape planning, suggesting that reducing field size could help mitigate crop damage while promoting more resilient and ecologically balanced agroecosystems. © 2025 The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Hailstorms represent one of the most damaging convective hazards for agriculture, yet quantifying their impacts at a landscape scale remains challenging due to their localized and short-lived nature. In this study, we combine weather radar parameters and Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery to assess vegetation damage caused by two major hail events in northeastern Romania: Rădăuți (17 July 2016) and Dolhasca (30 July 2020). Radar-derived hail kinetic energy (HKE) was used as a rapid temporal indicator of hail occurrence, with a threshold of 300 J m−2 applied to delineate potentially affected areas. Sentinel-2 Level-1C imagery, selected under strict temporal and cloud cover criteria, was processed to generate pre- and post-event Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) maps, from which NDVI differences (ΔNDVI) were computed. Thresholds of 0.10 and 0.20 were applied to identify moderate and severe vegetation stress, respectively. The results demonstrate strong spatial correspondence between radar-derived HKE cores and Sentinel-2 ΔNDVI reductions. In Rădăuți, where only one post-event image was available, ΔNDVI thresholds identified between 2236 and 5856 ha of affected vegetation within the HKE > 300 J m−2 zone. In Dolhasca, where three post-event images were available (5, 8, and 15 days), the analysis revealed 6200–9100 ha affected at 5 days, decreasing to 4800–7200 ha at 8 days, and further to 3100–5600 ha at 15 days post-event. This temporal gradient highlights both the recovery of vegetation and the diminishing sensitivity of the ΔNDVI signal with increasing time elapsed since the event. Analysis by land use classes showed arable fields to be the most sensitive, followed by orchards and pastures, while forests exhibited smaller but persistent declines. This study demonstrates the robustness of integrating radar-derived hail kinetic energy with Sentinel-2 NDVI differencing for the spatiotemporal assessment of hail damage. The approach provides both rapid detection and temporally resolved mapping of hail damage, underlining the critical role of time as a determining factor in impact assessments. These findings have strong implications for operational crop monitoring, disaster response, and risk management in hail-prone regions.

Abstract. Regenerative agriculture is emerging as a strategy for carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation. However, for sequestration efforts to be successful, long-term stabilisation of Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) is needed. This can be achieved either through uplift in recalcitrant carbon stocks, and/or through physical protection and occlusion of carbon within stable soil aggregates. In this research soils from blackcurrant fields under regenerative management (0 to 7 years) were assessed. Soils from under the blackcurrant bush crop (bush (ca. 40 % of the field area)), and the alleyways between the blackcurrant crop rows (alley (ca. 60 % of the field area) were considered. Soil bulk density (SBD), soil aggregate fractions (proportions of water stable aggregates vs. non-water stable aggregates (WSA and NWSA)), soil carbon content, and carbon stability (thermally recalcitrant carbon vs. thermally labile carbon) were assessed. From this, long term carbon sequestration potential was calculated from both recalcitrant and occluded carbon stocks (both defined as stabilised carbon). Results indicated favourable shifts in the percentage of NWSA:WSA with time, increasing from 27.6 %:5.8 % (control arable field soil) to 12.6 %:16.0 % (alley soils), and 16.1 %:14.4 % (bush soils) after 7 years. While no significant (p≥0.05)) changes in whole field (area weighted average of alley and bush soils), recalcitrant carbon stocks were observed after 7 years, labile carbon stocks increased significantly (p≤0.05) from 10.44 to 13.87 t C ha−1. Furthermore, as a result of the occlusion of labile carbon within the WSA fraction, total stabilised carbon increased by 1.7 t C ha−1 over the 7 year period. This research provides valuable insights into the potential for carbon stabilisation and long-term stability prognoses in soils managed under regenerative agriculture practices, highlighting the important role which soil aggregate stability plays in the physical protection of carbon, and potential therein to deliver long-term carbon sequestration.

Interactions between arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and ammonia-oxidizing (AO) microorganisms, two important microbial guilds contributing to soil-plant mineral nutrient cycling, are complex, given the high variability of soil biological, physical, and chemical properties. In addition, AO microorganisms are generally slow growing and require ample time to establish. Their communities are thus difficult to reconstruct under laboratory conditions, for example after soil sterilization. Therefore, in this study, we investigated quantitative and compositional responses of indigenous microorganisms occurring in 50 different field soils (collected from grasslands and arable fields) to actively growing mycelium of the AM fungus Rhizophagus irregularis. To this end, we quantified the abundance of various microbial guilds including AO bacteria (AOB), AO archaea (AOA), and comammox Nitrospira in pot-incubated soils exposed or not to actively growing AM fungus. Across the variety of soils, we observed systematic suppression by the AM fungus of different microbial groups including bacteria, protists, and fungi. The strongest suppression was noted for AOB and comammox Nitrospira, whereas the abundance and community structure of AOA remained unaffected by the AM fungal activity. Mycorrhizal suppression of AOB abundance was accompanied by changes in AOB community structure and correlated with soil pH. Contrary to the expected competition between AM fungus and AO microorganisms for available ammonium (NH4+) in the soil solution, the presence of the actively growing AM fungus significantly increased soil NH4+ levels as compared to the non-mycorrhizal control, at least upon the final destructive harvest. Thus, the interaction between the AM fungi and AO microorganisms likely goes beyond the simple competition for the free ammonium ions and might involve microorganisms active in other pathways of soil nitrogen cycle (e.g., mineralization) or temporarily different trajectories of nutrient use in mycorrhizal vs. non-mycorrhizal systems. Alternatively, elusive biological nitrification inhibitors may have contributed to the observed effect, produced by the AM fungus or its host plant, and subsequently transported to the root-free soil via the AM fungal hyphae.

Soil physical properties, such as porosity, are recognized to play an important role in the formation of soil organism communities and may regulate carbon sequestration in the soil ecosystem. However, despite their eminent importance, the relation between the abundance of soil animals, microbial necromass and pore space has been rarely demonstrated empirically. In this study, soil visible macroporosity (measured using X-ray computed tomography), microbial necromass (a pool of soil organic carbon), and densities of nematode groups were measured in the topsoil layer at a depth of 10 cm in four arable fields in southern Finland (clay and loam soils). Bacterial necromass was positively correlated with visible macroporosity smaller than 428 μm in size. Fungal necromass was marginally correlated (p = 0.059) with pores <233 μm in size. The abundance of bacterial feeding nematodes (and unknown juveniles) scaled positively with microbial necromasses, visible macropores smaller than 700 μm and the total visible macroporosity. The abundance of other feeding groups was independent of soil visible macroporosity. However, trophic interactions between feeding groups of nematodes appeared to be weak in this soil layer. Results indicate strong bottom-up regulation between microbes and microbial feeding nematodes. Microbial necromass, as an important organic fraction in soil, was clearly related to small soil macropores (<428 μm). These findings provide novel insights into how soil architecture, particularly macroporosity below 700 μm, influences the spatial ecology of soil organisms — an aspect that has received limited attention in boreal agroecosystems. • Soil porosity correlates with microbial necromass in pores smaller than 428 μm. • Bacterivores nematodes do not particularly prefer smaller scale soil pores. • Trophic interactions between feeding groups of nematodes appeared to be weak. • Bottom-up regulation dominates between microbes and microbial feeding nematodes.

ABSTRACT The EU aims to harmonise soil health monitoring across Member States with the Soil Monitoring Law. Selection of appropriate soil health indicators remains a key challenge, however. Total organic carbon (TOC) content, a key factor in soil health, may be related to indicators of microbial soil health. The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between various microbial soil health indicators and TOC in the topsoil of arable fields in Flanders (northern Belgium). Carbon (C) input from exogenous organic matter (C input) was also explored as a proxy for TOC. Four microbial soil health indicators were examined: (1) Hot‐water extractable C (HWC), (2) Total biomass according to phospholipid fatty acid analysis (PLFA), (3) Bacterial (DivB) and (4) Fungal (DivF) Shannon‐Wiener diversity. Five medium‐ to long‐term field trials with different field histories and spatial variability were selected based on different C inputs. Results showed that both TOC and C input were good predictors for HWC and PLFA. A positive relationship between C input and TOC was found. This supports the use of C input as a practical proxy for monitoring TOC changes in soils (e.g., for carbon farming and soil health assessments). Significant within‐field spatial variability was observed for TOC, HWC and PLFA, suggesting that spatial differences in soil health assessments should be addressed via sampling design. DNA‐based indicators (DivB and DivF) were less influenced by spatial or management factors and also correlated weakly with TOC. These findings highlight the complex interplay among field history, current management and spatial variability when determining soil health.