Adult Attachment Orientations Research Articles

Perceived attachment history predicts psychedelic experiences: A naturalistic study

AbstractBackground and aimsEmerging research indicates that psychedelics may have therapeutic potential by fostering meaningful experiences that act as “inflection points” in people's narratives of personal development. However, psychedelic research has largely failed to address pertinent developmental considerations. We investigated whether attachment-related variables were associated with psychedelic experiences and whether psychedelic experiences moderated expected links between perceived attachment history and current adult attachment orientations.MethodsWe administered an online survey to an international Jewish sample (N = 185) with psychedelic experience. The survey included measures about recollection of attachment interactions with parents (perceived attachment history), adult attachment orientations (anxiety, avoidance), and psychedelic phenomenology (mystical experiences, challenging experiences, emotional breakthrough, ego dissolution, sensed presence) associated with respondents' most memorable psychedelic experiences.ResultsPerceptions of an insecure attachment history were positively linked to all measures of psychedelic phenomenology (r's = 0.19–32, p's mostly < 0.01). In contrast, adult attachment orientations were unrelated to psychedelic phenomenology. Also, psychedelic phenomenology mostly did not moderate the links observed between perceptions of an insecure attachment history and adult attachment orientations.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that perceptions of early attachment experiences may be relevant to psychedelic phenomenology. However, subjective experiences associated with naturalistic psychedelic use do not typically attenuate links between a perceived insecure attachment history and attachment insecurity at present.

Longitudinal associations among adult attachment orientations, emotion regulation tendencies, and transdiagnostic anxiety and depression symptoms in young adults

Adult attachment orientations can influence emotion regulation. Such influence on the tendency to employ two strategies, cognitive reappraisal (which aims to modify emotional experiences) and expressive suppression (which inhibits emotional expression) and later symptoms is understudied. This longitudinal study evaluated indirect associations between adult attachment orientations—with a focus on the dimension of security—and transdiagnostic anxiety and depression symptoms (General Distress; GD) through reappraisal and suppression. Correlational analyses examined cross-sectional associations among constructs across four timepoints. A cross-lagged panel model was fit to examine prospective hypotheses using 30-month longitudinal data from young adults ( N = 270 at baseline). Correlational evidence provided support for expected cross-sectional associations. In prospective analyses, there was a significant unique effect of attachment-related avoidance on expressive suppression such that higher attachment-related avoidance predicted higher use of subsequent expressive suppression. There were significant unique effects of emotion regulation on symptoms such that higher reappraisal predicted lower subsequent GD and higher suppression predicted higher subsequent GD. There was no evidence for significant direct or indirect effects of attachment orientations on GD. Results suggest that adult attachment orientation may inform how one expresses emotions in the future, and how one regulates emotions may inform subsequent shared symptoms of depression and anxiety. There was no evidence that attachment orientations informed future transdiagnostic symptoms of depression and anxiety.

Predicting attitudes toward mitigation interventions and social distancing behaviors at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States

ABSTRACT Aim The goal of this research was to assess the influence of adult attachment, personality, and cultural orientation on social distancing and attitudes toward COVID-19 mitigation interventions. Methods Survey data was collected across two samples (NMTurk = 201, Nsnowball = 242) in the US from April 29 to May 11, 2020. Adult attachment was assessed via the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale-Short Form (ECR-S; Wei, M., Russell, D. W., Mallinckrodt, B., & Vogel, D. L. (2007). The experiences in close relationship scale (ECR)-short form: Reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 88(2), 187–204), personality was assessed via the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI; Gosling, S. D., Rentfrow, P. J., & Swann, W. B. (2003). A very brief measure of the Big-Five personality domains. Journal of Research in Personality, 37(6), 504–528), cultural orientation was assessed via the Horizontal and Vertical Individualism and Collectivism Scale (Triandis, H. C., & Galfand, M. J. (1998). Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 118–128), and social distancing and attitudes toward mitigation interventions were assessed via self-report measures developed for this assessment. Results In the MTurk sample, agreeableness (β = .19) and conscientiousness (β = .26) predicted positive mitigation intervention attitudes. Agreeableness (β = .24) and vertical collectivism (β = .25) positively predicted social distancing, while attachment anxiety (β = −.32) and vertical individualism (β = −.32) negatively predicted social distancing. In our snowball sample, residing primarily in New York, openness (β = .18) and horizontal collectivism (β = .16) predicted positive intervention attitudes, while horizontal individualism (β = −.20) predicted negative attitudes. Social contact in this sample was low and not associated with predictor variables. In both samples, mitigation attitudes and social distancing were only moderately correlated. Implications Our findings highlight the inherent inconsistency between attitudes and behaviors as well as the potential impact of mandated interventions on both attitudes and behavior.

Social networking sites and relationship social comparison: Effect of relational and individual factors

The widespread use of the Internet and the popularity of mobile devices have greatly changed our communication habits. Due to their popularity, social networking sites (SNS) are at the center of online relationships, including romantic ones. This paper explores the emerging role of SNS on relationship social comparison (RSC) and individual and relational predictors of RSC. The present study used an experimental design to evaluate the role of relational posts of others’ on SNS. Specifically, RSC based on posts by others on SNS were analyzed. In addition, possible other factors that influence the tendency to make RSC, namely relationship satisfaction, investment, quality of alternatives, and adult attachment orientation were examined. The sample of the study consist of 251 participants. 180 (71%) were females and 71 (29%) were males. The sample’s mean age was 28.16 (<i>SD</i>=6.32). According to the results, there was no significant effect of exposure to relational posts on RSC. On the other hand, the results showed that anxious attachment style and investment in romantic relationships positively predicted RSC tendency. On the contrary, relationship satisfaction negatively predicted RSC tendencies. This study provided an important insight for understanding the effects of SNS on RSC in terms of individual and relational factors.

A Secure Base for Entrepreneurship: Attachment Orientations and Entrepreneurial Tendencies.

Entrepreneurship catalyzes economic growth; it generates jobs, advances the economy and solves global challenges. Hence, it is crucial to understand the factors contributing to entrepreneurship and entrepreneurs' development. While many studies have investigated intrapersonal factors for entrepreneurial tendencies, the present study focuses on a critical yet often overlooked interpersonal aspect: attachment orientations. Specifically, this article examines the relationship between adult attachment orientations and entrepreneurial tendencies. Three studies across three countries (Israel, the UK, and Singapore) indicated that an anxious attachment orientation in close relationships is negatively associated with enterprising tendencies. In Israel (Study 1) and Singapore (Study 2), avoidant attachment in close relationships was also negatively correlated to such tendencies. Overall, the more people feel secure in close relationships (lower scores on attachment anxiety or avoidance), the higher their enterprising tendencies. Limitations and future research suggestions are discussed.

Race moderates the association between adult attachment avoidance and the cortisol awakening response among young sexual minority men

Adult attachment, or the ways in which individuals develop and maintain trusting and loving relationships with peers and romantic partners, has been demonstrated to influence hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis functioning among young sexual minority men (YSMM). Theory and preliminary evidence suggest that differences in the lived experiences of White and Black sexual minority young adults may influence the way in which adult attachment influences the HPA-axis functioning. We sought to further this field of inquiry by examining if race moderates the association between adult attachment insecurity (i.e., avoidance and anxiety) and HPA-axis functioning among YSMM. Sixty-three YSMM participated in a 5-day daily diary study in which they completed a baseline survey to assess adult attachment orientation and provided saliva samples 4 times per day over a 5-day period in order to measure cortisol across the day. Three-level hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine the association between adult attachment, the cortisol awakening response (CAR), diurnal cortisol, and the moderating effect of race. We found no main effect of attachment anxiety or avoidance on HPA-axis functioning. However, we found that race moderated the association between adult attachment avoidance and the CAR such that Black YSMM with higher attachment avoidance had a lower CAR as compared to White YSMM. Results suggest that there may be key differences between White and Black YSMM men’s lived experiences that should be explored in future research.

Adult attachment and trait anxiety among Chinese college students: A multiple mediation model.

The present study discusses the relationship between adult attachment and trait anxiety of Chinese college students based on the “internal working models” theory. Six hundred and seventy-two valid data were collected using a self-reported questionnaire. The mediating roles of self-esteem, perceived social support, and security in the relationship between adult attachment orientations (anxiety and avoidance) and trait anxiety were investigated using the structural equation model and bootstrap methods. The results showed that: self-esteem and security play mediating roles in the relationship between attachment anxiety and trait anxiety. self-esteem, perceived social support, and security play mediating roles in the relationship between attachment avoidance and trait anxiety. In addition, there were different mediation mechanisms in the correlation between different attachment dimensions and trait anxiety. This study provided empirical data for exploring the formation and maintenance of trait anxiety in college students and had a specific significance for the early prevention and clinical intervention of anxiety-related disorders.

Facets of Mindfulness Mediate the Relationship Between Attachment Orientation and Emotion Regulation in University Students.

Whilst both mindfulness and adult attachment have been linked to wellbeing, little is known about how these constructs relate to emotion regulation that can underpin wellbeing. The present study examined the association between adult attachment orientation and emotion regulation (strategies and difficulties) and the mediating role of facets of dispositional mindfulness. A sample of 301 university students (Mage = 23.08, SD = 8.08; 74.75% female) completed measures of adult attachment, emotion regulation, difficulties in emotion regulation, and dispositional mindfulness. Parallel multiple mediation analyses indicated that the act with awareness and non-judging facets of mindfulness repeatedly emerged as significant mediators in the positive associations between the dimensions of attachment insecurity (anxiety, avoidance, and disorganized) and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies and difficulties in emotion regulation. Those individuals exhibiting greater attachment insecurity employ maladaptive emotion regulation strategies and display difficulties in emotion regulation via mindfulness deficits. The present findings extend our current understanding of the role of dispositional mindfulness in the associations between adult attachment orientation and varying aspects of the emotion regulation process.

Attachment Avoidance Moderates the Relationship Among Acceptance of Sugar Relationships, Motivation, and Self-Esteem.

A sugar relationship is a monetary-based liaison between a wealthier older and an attractive younger person, the latter receiving expensive gifts or financial compensation in exchange for her or his sexual companionship. Attachment, motivation, and self-esteem are all integrative parts of adult romantic and sexual relationships. There is relatively little empirical research on the psychological correlates of accepting attitudes toward sugar relationships. The research aimed to explore the relationship among the acceptance of sugar relationship, attachment (avoidance and anxiety), motivation (extrinsic and intrinsic), and self-esteem. A total of 2,409 Hungarian adults including 1,980 younger participants (1,804 women, 175 men, mean age = 21.17) and 429 older participants (290 men, 138 women, mean age = 48.86) completed an online test battery comprising four self-report measures. In the younger subsample, the only significant association obtained for the acceptance of sugar relationships was its positive correlation with extrinsic motivation. In the older subsample, the acceptance of sugar relationships was positively correlated with all tested variables except self-esteem. Subsequent analysis revealed that attachment avoidance but not anxiety moderated the associations between the variables. Among younger participants, the negative effect of self-esteem and intrinsic motivation on accepting sugar relationships decreased with increasing attachment avoidance. Among older participants, the positive effect of extrinsic motivation on accepting sugar relationships decreased with increasing attachment avoidance. The results are discussed with regard to relational and sexual goals associated with adult attachment orientations.

Relationship-specific Satisfaction and Adjustment in Emerging Adulthood: The Moderating Role of Adult Attachment Orientation.

Highly satisfying social relationships make us happy and healthy-they fill us with joy and a sense of meaning and purpose. But do all the relationships in our lives contribute equally to our well-being and do some people benefit more from certain relationships? The current study examined associations between the satisfaction of specific relationships within a family (i.e., with parents, siblings) and adjustment (i.e., life satisfaction and depressive symptoms) among 572 emerging adults aged 18-25 (M age = 19.95, SD = 1.42; 77.4% female). Overall, relationship satisfaction with mothers and fathers was associated with better adjustment. Attachment anxiety and avoidance moderated associations between relationship-specific satisfaction and adjustment. We discuss the findings in the context of the shifting of attachment functions during emerging adulthood and the dynamic nature of close relationships across the lifespan.

Parenting issues and attachment orientations: a comparison between Turkey and Bosnia and Herzegovina

ABSTRACT A growing body of literature links particular parenting practices with attachment orientations in the Western societies. However, the effects of cultural differences on such linkages have not been adequately addressed in the literature on attachment. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the relationship between child-rearing behaviors and adult attachment orientations in Bosnian and Turkish parents. 227 parents (124 Bosnian and 111 Turkish) aged 25-45 years were selected by multiple cluster sampling method. They filled out the following questionnaires: ‘Child Rearing Behaviors Questionnaire' and ‘Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised Questionnaire (ECRI II).' The most interesting finding is that the attachment orientations were not a predictor of any childrearing behaviors in both countries. These results present the consequences of attachment and parenting issues in non-western societies.

Adult attachment, cultural orientation, and well-being in Greece

Social bonds and relationships are important determinants of well-being and happiness. Peoples’ propensities for relating to individual and cultural levels can partially account for variations in well-being in different cultures. The present paper examined how adult attachment orientations, a seminal aspect of relating, and independent and interdependent self-construal, a cultural category of social relations, interrelate at an individual level to explain well-being in Greece. In a large-scale community study state secure attachment and independent and interdependent cultural orientations were all positively associated with well-being. As expected, the two relating constructs intersected so that higher interdependence was associated with higher anxiety and lower avoidance in line with expectations. Importantly, the interaction between interdependence and anxious attachment accounted for an additional part of the variance in well-being: participants higher in anxiety and interdependence had higher well-being whereas the inverse was true for participants higher in anxiety and independence. These results point to culture-specific patterns in how central relating schemas contribute to well-being[1]. 

The relationship between individuals with fearful-avoidant adult attachment orientation and early neural responses to emotional content: An event-related potentials (ERPs) study.

Adult attachment orientation affects the interactions of individuals with others. Fearful-avoidant individuals are characterized by both high anxiety and high avoidance. This study examines the response of individuals with fearful-avoidant attachment orientation to neutral, emotionally positive, or emotionally negative visual stimuli. Participants included 119 undergraduate students (91 female), mean age 23.5 ± 3.6 years: 30 fearful-avoidant, 32 secure, 28 anxious-preoccupied, and 29 dismissive-avoidant. The response of individuals with fearful-avoidant attachment orientation to IAPS emotional and neutral pictures was measured using Event-Related Potential (ERP), and compared to individuals with dismissive-avoidance or anxious-preoccupied attachment orientations (with a secure attachment group as control). The study focused on early time reaction, as defined by the P1, N1, and P2 components (110-165, 165-215, and 215-280 ms poststimulus, respectively). We find that individuals with fearful-avoidant attachment orientation display a reaction to emotional (positive or negative) cues, at the P1 and P2 components, that is significantly different than that of individuals with anxious-preoccupied attachment, but is similar to that of individuals with dismissive-avoidant attachment. Our results suggest that the initial response to emotional stimuli of individuals with fearful-avoidant attachment is dominated by avoidance, rather than anxiety. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Adult Attachment Orientations and Social Networking Site Addiction: The Mediating Effects of Online Social Support and the Fear of Missing Out.

Evidence supports predictive roles of adult attachment orientations for the maintenance of social networking site (SNS) addiction, but the underlying mechanisms are mostly unknown. Based on attachment theory, this study explored whether online social support and the fear of missing out mediated the relationship between insecure attachment and social networking site addiction among 463 college students in China. A questionnaire was used to collect data using the Experience in Close Relationship Scale—Short Form, online social support scale, fear of missing out scale, and Chinese Social Media Addiction Scale. The results showed that online social support and fear of missing out mediated the relationship between anxious attachment and social networking site addiction in parallel paths and serially, and online social support negatively mediated the relationship between avoidant attachment and social networking site addiction. Theoretically, the present study contributes to the field by showing how insecure attachment is linked to SNS addiction. Practically, these findings could aid in future studies on SNS addiction prevention and interventions. Limitations of the present study were discussed.

Attachment, Sense of Entitlement in Romantic Relationships, and Sexual Revictimization Among Adult CSA Survivors.

Insecure attachment orientations are disproportionately frequent in child sexual abuse (CSA) survivors and have been found to mediate some of the effects of CSA on adult interpersonal and romantic difficulties, including sexual revictimization (SR). A sense of relational entitlement (SRE) has received growing attention in psychological discourse and research in recent years. It reflects both adaptive (assertive) and pathological (restricted or inflated) attitudes to the assertion of needs and rights and has not been studied in adult CSA survivors. The purpose of this study was to examine associations between CSA, attachment orientations, SR, and SRE. Sixty-seven Israeli women aged 25 ± 3.95 years (30 adult CSA survivors and 37 healthy female controls with no history of CSA) completed a demographic questionnaire and self-reported measures of adult attachment orientations, sense of entitlement in romantic relationships, and adult SR. CSA survivors reported greater attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance, more restricted SRE, and higher revictimization rates than control women. No difference was found between the groups in inflated SRE. In the CSA but not the control group, anxious and avoidant attachment orientations were significantly and negatively associated with assertive SRE. Insecure (anxious and avoidant) attachment fully mediated the association between CSA and restricted SRE. Our findings suggest that the interplay between insecure attachment and CSA is related to a sense of impaired assertive entitlement and elevated restricted entitlement in adult CSA survivors. This entitlement pattern can be destructive to survivors' romantic relationships and should be addressed in therapy.

Mediation effect of adult attachment orientations between perceived parental warmth and the preference for infants

Parenting motivation includes positive affect, a strong preference, and willingness to care for infants. In this series of studies, we investigated the formation of adult attachment, and its influence on parenting motivation. In Study 1, 975 emerging adults (Mage = 20.51, SD = 1.74) completed a survey about perceived parental warmth, adult attachment, and interest in infants to determine if adult attachment mediates the relationship between perceived parental warmth and interest in infants. In Study 2, 270 emerging adults (Mage = 21.58, SD = 1.96) assessed the preference for infant faces including pleasure, cuteness, and willingness to care to examine how adult attachment affects this preference. Attachment avoidance mediated the relationship between perceived parental warmth and the preference for infants including interest in infants (95% CI study1, study2 = [.072, .310], [.158, .806]) and preference for infant faces (95% CI pleasure, cuteness, willingness = [.018, .172], [.053, .290], [.029, .240]). These findings suggest emerging adults with decreased attachment avoidance who perceived emotional warmth from their parents during childhood displayed elevated parenting motivation, have implications for these adults with insecure attachment during the parent-child relationship and can provide the basis for conducting corresponding brain mechanism research.

Adult attachment and testosterone reactivity: Fathers' avoidance predicts changes in testosterone during the strange situation procedure

We assessed parents' testosterone reactivity to the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP), a moderately stressful parent-infant interaction task that pulls for parental nurturance and caregiving behavior. Parents (146 mothers, 154 fathers) interacted with their 1-year-old infants, and saliva samples were obtained pre- and post-task to assess changes in testosterone. We examined whether testosterone reactivity differed between mothers and fathers, the extent to which parents' characteristic approaches to closeness (i.e., adult attachment orientation) contributed to testosterone changes, and whether any influences of adult attachment orientation were independent of more general personality characteristics (i.e., the Big Five personality dimensions). Results revealed that mothers and fathers showed comparable declines in testosterone during the SSP, and that these declines were attenuated among fathers with a more avoidant attachment orientation (i.e., those less comfortable with closeness). Associations between fathers' avoidance and testosterone reactivity were statistically independent of broader personality traits. Our findings provide some of the first evidence for short-term changes in both mothers' and fathers' testosterone in contexts that pull for nurturance. Moreover, these findings demonstrate that individual differences in adult attachment may play an important role in understanding such changes. We discuss possible explanations for gender differences in associations between adult attachment and parents' testosterone reactivity, and the extent to which testosterone reactivity might be sensitive to changes in context for mothers versus fathers.

Maternal attachment avoidance is linked to youth diurnal cortisol slopes in children with asthma

ABSTRACTPrior evidence suggests that an individual’s attachment orientation is linked to the health and health-related biology of his/her romantic relationship partners. The current study examined whether this effect extends to parent–child relationships. Specifically, we investigated the association between maternal attachment anxiety and avoidance and diurnal cortisol of offspring. In a sample of 138 youth with asthma and their primary caregivers, caregivers reported their attachment orientations, and their children (aged 10–17) supplied four saliva samples per day over four days to assess diurnal cortisol patterns. Growth curve analyses revealed no links to caregiver attachment anxiety, but caregiver attachment avoidance was significantly associated with children’s diurnal cortisol slopes, such that greater attachment avoidance predicted flatter diurnal cortisol slopes. Maternal warmth did not mediate this link. These results support the possibility that an individual’s adult attachment orientation may “get under the skin” of family members to influence their health-related biology. Future research should seek to determine the causal direction of this association and mechanisms of this effect.

The role of adult attachment orientation and coping in psychological adjustment to living with skin conditions

Skin conditions can impact significantly on everyday life, particularly relationships. However, some patients are more distressed by these problems than others, regardless of disease severity. There is some evidence that the extent to which patients seek support from friends and family (“attachment orientation”) predicts how well they cope with chronic health conditions, but there has been little previous research with regard to skin disorders. These psychologists in Sheffield, UK, investigated this using online questionnaires in 206 adults recruited through universities and patient support groups. Participants had to have been diagnosed with a skin condition by a health care professional and experiencing symptoms over the last 6 months. Psychological adjustment to their skin disorder was assessed using scores for appearance‐related distress and skin‐related quality of life (QoL). Two dimensions of attachment orientation were measured: fear of intimacy (“attachment avoidance”) and fear of abandonment (“attachment anxiety”). The use of 2 coping strategies was also studied: defeatism (e.g. giving up, denial or turning to drugs or alcohol) and activity (humour, venting, seeking help or coming up with a plan). They found that people showing higher attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety reported more defeatist attitudes, resulting in higher levels of appearance‐related distress and lower QoL, both emotional and functioning aspects. Surprisingly, people using active coping strategies also experienced more appearance‐related distress, perhaps being less accepting of their condition. The authors conclude that people with insecure attachment orientation are more troubled by their skin condition and might benefit from psychological interventions targeting underlying attachment orientation.

The role of adult attachment orientation and coping in psychological adjustment to living with skin conditions.

Skin conditions can be associated with significant psychological distress. Investigation of attachment orientation and associated use of coping strategies is a promising perspective from which to investigate psychological adjustment to skin conditions. To examine the role of adult attachment orientation, conceptualized as two dimensions - attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety - in psychological adjustment [appearance-related distress and skin-related quality of life (QoL)], and the mediating role of two coping strategies - defeatism and activity. Attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety, use of coping strategies, appearance-related distress and skin-related QoL were assessed via a cross-sectional online survey in 207 adults with skin conditions. Multiple mediation analyses were performed using PROCESS pathway analysis. Overall, higher attachment avoidance and higher attachment anxiety were associated with higher appearance-related distress and greater impact on emotions and functioning aspects of QoL. For attachment anxiety, the relationship was fully explained by more frequent use of defeatism coping. For attachment avoidance, the relationship was partially explained by more frequent use of defeatism coping (and in the case of appearance-related distress also more frequent use of activity coping), and higher attachment avoidance was also associated with poorer psychological adjustment in a way that could not be explained by use of assessed coping strategies. Insecure attachment orientation (high attachment avoidance or high attachment anxiety) is linked to poorer adjustment. People with insecure attachment might benefit from psychological interventions that target underlying attachment orientation.