The risks associated with carbon credit transactions discourage private investment in Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation in tropical countries (REDD+) and reduce incentives for forest conservation in tropical countries. REDD+ call options have been proposed as a carbon trading mechanism that reduces uncertainty and attracts private investment. Meanwhile, assessing their rationale for tropical nations remains limited. This study evaluated the payoffs of REDD+ call option contracts from the perspective of tropical countries. Using the Black-Scholes model, we identified strike prices and option prices that offset the costs of REDD+. Then we simulated carbon prices with geometric Brownian motion to examine option payoffs. The revealed payoff suggests that tropical countries are prone to losses under the REDD+ call option, although it represents a rational investment strategy for corporations. A short straddle-like payoff diagram suggests limited benefits under high market volatility, while even low volatility also fails to make the mechanism attractive due to insufficient upfront payments. Robustness checks using a Merton jump–diffusion process also confirmed that these qualitative payoff patterns persist under more realistic carbon price dynamics. To increase the practical applicability, we proposed alternative strategies such as covered call options. The study concludes that REDD+ call options should be adopted cautiously and complemented by appropriate risk management measures.

Pine Wilt Disease (PWD) poses a significant threat to pine forests worldwide, resulting in substantial ecological and economic losses. In South Korea, where pine trees have significant cultural and ecological value, considerable resources are invested annually in controlling the disease. Despite these efforts, PWD continues to spread, raising concerns about the long-term effectiveness of management strategies. This study evaluates the combined economic and public values of pine forests while analyzing the cost-effectiveness of current PWD control measures. The study revealed that pine forests in South Korea provide substantial economic and public benefits, which increase with stand age and tree size. These values reflect the current and future benefits of timber production, Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs), and public Willingness To Pay (WTP) for conservation. Spatial analysis further identified high-value regions vulnerable to PWD, emphasizing the importance of targeted control measures. The combined economic and public values of pine forests significantly outweigh the costs of PWD management, demonstrating the cost-effectiveness of current measures. The results provide critical data to inform evidence-based policy decisions for sustainable pine forest management in South Korea.

The Mutis Timau is essential in community life and ecological conservation. However, the ecosystem has experienced disturbances and changes in its status, which have influenced land use and land cover. This research aims to predict land cover change in 2030 in the Mutis Timau. This research uses Landsat 7 ETM+ from 2011 and Landsat 8 OLI/TRIS from 2016 and 2021. The variable used Shuttle Radar Topography Mission digital elevation data. Data processing was carried out using Google Earth Engine, and a random forest algorithm was applied to predict land cover in 2030. The results showed that predicted changes in land cover area in the Mutis Timau Area were merely minor. Eucalyptus land cover experienced the greatest change in 2030, losing 5.05% of its total area. These findings could be beneficial to climate change mitigation initiatives in Indonesia to meet the Forestry and Other Land Uses Net Sink target by 2030.

Coffee is an important product in the world economy and its productivity and quality are affected by diseases such as Rust (Hemileia vastatrix), anthracnose (Colletotrichum kahawae) and rooster’s eye (Mycena citricolor), in this sense, the objective of this research was to determine the level of accuracy of a system based on image recognition for the diagnosis of diseases in coffee crops, which will help in the timely detection of diseases. Convolutional neural networks (CNN) were used, which have demonstrated their efficiency and accuracy in the field of image classification and pattern recognition, based on Artificial Intelligence (AI), which allowed the recognition of diseases in coffee crops through a mobile web application. As a result, high accuracy was obtained to detect anthracnose, rooster’s eye and rust diseases (92%, 94%, 91%) at an overall accuracy of 92%, an F1 score of 0.92%. With this help, coffee growers can identify diseases more quickly, increasing coffee production. In this sense, it is of great importance to implement future projects, incorporating participatory research methods for its massification that will allow the diagnosis of coffee diseases in real time.

China has been advancing market-oriented reforms in the forestry sector and has launched a new round of collective forest tenure system reform. (1) Background: Since 1999, there has been limited research comparing the development dynamics between the Southern Collective Forest Region (SCFR) and the Northern Plain Forest Region (NPFR). Such comparative insights are crucial for incentivizing forest farmers’ engagement in forestry investment, optimizing forestry reform policies and institutional frameworks, and further fostering high-quality development in China’s forestry sector. (2) Methods: To assess whether policy or market factors are the main drivers of forestry investment, this study conducts a comparative analysis of the SCFR and NPFR. Specifically, the Difference-in-Differences (DID) method is applied to provincial-level macro data. Additionally, the STIRPAT model is used to project forestry investment trends under varying degrees of market intensity. (3) Results: The DID estimates indicate that market forces play a more substantial role than policy in shaping total forestry investment. The Producer Price Index (PPI) shows a pronounced positive effect on forestry investment. STIRPAT-based projections further suggest that higher market intensity is associated with greater levels of forestry investment. (4) Conclusions: The market environment constitutes the principal driver of the increase in forestry investment. Improving the market system can effectively promote the expansion of forestry investment, thereby contributing to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals.

Agroforestry – the integration of trees into crops or livestock systems – has gained increasing recognition as a strategic approach to enhancing food security, driving sustainable economic development, and supporting environmental conservation. Despite this growing importance, the dynamics of international aid for agroforestry remain underexplored. This study examines the status and evolving trends of agroforestry aid by analyzing data from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’s Creditor Reporting System spanning 1988–2019. The findings reveal three distinct aid pathways for agroforestry development, each shaped by diverse accountability and cooperation frameworks, with support distributed across five sectoral domains: agriculture, forestry, environment, energy, and rural development. Results demonstrate that the expansion of agroforestry aid is closely aligned with environmental management objectives, particularly climate change mitigation and biodiversity conservation. Donor-recipient analysis highlights variations in accountability mechanisms and development priorities, reflecting the multidimensional nature of agroforestry within international cooperation. By identifying the thematic patterns and complexity of agroforestry aid, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of agroforestry aid and underscores its potential to enhance policy coherence, strengthen sustainable land use, and build global resilience.

The study was conducted to evaluate the effect of supplementation dried khat (catha edulis) leftover with concentrate mix on feed intake. Twenty five (25) yearlings Bati goats with an average live weight of 17.79 ± 0.83kg (mean ± SD) were grouped in to five blocks of five animals based on their initial body weight and the treatment diets were randomly assigned to the animals with in a block using RCBD. The experiment consisted of 90 days of feeding trial followed by 7 days digestibility trial. The number of supplements offered was 303.6 g/day/head on dry matter basis, at rations were formulated in iso-nitrogenous to meet the daily CP requirements of goats. All goats fed grass hay adlibitum and supplemented on concentrates mix with khat leftover meal at a ratio of 0%KLM, 10%KLM, 20%KLM, 30%KLM, and 40%KLM on DM -basis. The result showed that inclusion of KLM to some extent significantly decreased the intake of TDM (717.4 -683.8 g/d) and CP (90.9 -84.96 g/d). Apparent digestibility of DM, OM and CP was significantly (P < 0.05) decreased with increasing the level KLM. The BWC, FCE and ADG was lower 40%KLM than other tratment. Among supplement (0%KLM-30%KLM) was comparable potential to supply nutrients for improving the weight gains of goat. Relatively the highest net return and change in net return were obtained in increased (619 -653.68 ETB) with increasing the level of KLM (10%KLM-30%KLM). Gennerally, inclusion of khat leafover meal up to 30% could be obtained better body weight gain. From the perspective of the economic level (30% KLM with 70% CM) was recommended for better animal performance and more economically visible for producers.

Background In the current context of climate change, community forests in Togo’s Maritime region are the last relics of threatened woody biodiversity. They are essential for maintaining natural carbon sinks and increasing the resilience of populations to the effects of climate change. Objective This study is a contribution to the analysis of structural and dendrometric parameters of plant populations to assess the health of species in their natural habitat and identify demographic trends. Methodology Ninety-two plots of variable size were inventoried following the Braun-Blanquet approach, recording species diversity and structural attributes of individuals (DBH ≥ 10 cm). Diameter class structure was analyzed to infer population dynamics, and species conservation status was assessed according to IUCN Red List criteria. Results Community forests in Togo’s Maritime region have an average density of 854 ± 25.37 stems ha−1, with positively skewed diameter distributions indicating regenerating young stands. Mean DBH is 72.4 ± 46.09 cm, total height 14.5 ± 5.64 m, basal area 6.4 m2 ha−1, and above- and below-ground biomass 115.8 ± 1.57 Mg ha−1 and 56.8 ± 1.25 Mg ha−1, respectively. The most abundant species are Anogeissus leiocarpa (DC.) Guill. & Perr (12.05%), Delonix regia (Boj. ex Hook.) Raf (9.90%), and Terminalia superba Engl. & Diels (5.91%). Eight species are IUCN-listed as threatened, while several natives with low IVI (<10%) Lannea acida A.Rich., Albizia adianthifolia (Schum.) W.Wight, Albizia zygia (DC.) J. F. Macbr., require urgent conservation measures. Conclusion The results of this study help to reveal the structural and dendrometric characteristics of community forests, thus providing a basis for ensuring the continuity of efforts to preserve woody resources in Togo’s forest formations.

Swietenia macrophylla King (wide leaf mahagony) is a valuable tree for furniture supply, whereas in Indonesia, it is only grown on specific islands. To initiate its genetic improvement, this experiment observed growth variations of different seed sources. In a nursery experiment, four seed sources of Banjar-West Java, Kulonprogo-Yogyakarta, Bondowoso-East Java, and Lombok-West Nusa Tenggara were assessed, with six parental trees per seed source, consisting of 20 seeds per parental tree and replicated into 5. Meanwhile, the experimental progeny test in the field using the same seed sources consisted of 48 families with 6 replications. Anova analysis at the nursery level found differences in all characters for germination rate, seedling height, and root collar diameter. Meanwhile, at the progeny test, the variance analysis showed a significant difference between seed sources for all parameters observed. Positive or negative correlations have been revealed between growth traits and elevation, longitude, latitude, temperature, and precipitation of the seed sources. Diameters with a moderate narrow-sense individual heritability value of h2i = 0.35 and h2i = 0.15 for height were found in this study.

Forests store carbon in wood, forest floor, and soil. Carbon stock and distribution between these compartments differ across forests. The Monfragüe National Park (West Spain) is home to a variety of forests resulting from contrasting land use histories. These include holm and cork oak (Quercus ilex and Q. suber) dehesas (open forests with low-intensity agro-silvo-pastoral use), and pine (Pinus pinaster) and eucalypt (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) plantations, which pursued wood production. These uses ceased decades ago. Part of the former eucalypt plantations was removed and planted with native oaks, but the restoration failed leading to a Cistus ladanifer shrubland. In these five vegetation types, we assessed carbon stock and partitioning among above- (tree and shrub canopy, and forest floor) and belowground compartments (roots and soil); we also assessed tree health, and potential for tree regeneration as indicators of carbon stock persistence. We measured tree dimensions, shrub cover and height, and collected forest floor and soil samples for organic carbon analyses. Allometric equations were used to estimate tree and shrub carbon stocks. Plantations were expected to show a less diverse undercanopy but higher carbon stocks than dehesas, whereas dehesas were expected to allocate a greater proportion of carbon belowground, and to exhibit better tree health and regeneration. Total carbon was the highest in the pine and eucalypt plantations, followed by oak dehesas and minimum in the C. ladanifer shrubland. The shrub layer contributed more to the total carbon stock in the C. ladanifer shrubland and in the eucalypt plantation (13-14%), but ≤ 2% in the pine plantation and in the dehesas. The belowground carbon fraction was greatest in the oak dehesas (c.a. 60%), followed by the pine (55%) and eucalypt (46%) plantations. C. ladanifer shrubland showed an unexpectedly high proportion of carbon in the soil, probably due to legacy effects of the former plantation. Tree health was poorest in eucalypts, followed by cork oaks, while pines and holm oaks showed a better condition. Tree regeneration was poor in all forest types, likely due to canopy competition (plantations) and herbivory (dehesas). Although pine and eucalypt plantations store more total carbon, oak dehesas offer more stable storage due to higher belowground carbon. However, regeneration failure threatens their long-term persistence. Our results show that past land use largely determines forest capacity to store and retain carbon over the long term. Enhancing forest resilience should be a central goal of management aimed at strengthening carbon sink services.