Abstract Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a complex neurodegenerative disorder influenced by both genetic predisposition and environmental exposures. While the roles of pesticides and heavy metals in PD have been widely studied, mycotoxins – secondary fungal metabolites commonly found in contaminated food – remain relatively understudied, despite experimental evidence of their neurotoxic potential. This study aimed to explore the role of mycotoxin exposure and PD by quantifying plasma mycotoxin levels and evaluating dietary patterns in 26 individuals with PD compared to 26 age- and gender-matched healthy controls. Plasma samples were analysed for multiple mycotoxin content using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Dietary exposure was assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) to examine potential correlations between dietary habits and mycotoxin presence. Mycotoxins, including citrinin (CIT), cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), ochratoxin A (OTA), enniatin B (EnnB), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) were quantified in plasma samples, with no significant differences in concentration levels or detection frequency between PD patients and controls. However, significant correlations were found between specific foods and mycotoxin levels (e.g. CIT with raisin bread, OTA with milk bread/soy, EnnB with rye bread/tortilla/whole wheat pasta, CPA with whole wheat pasta/tortilla, and TeA with white bread). While overall dietary patterns were similar, patients consumed more cake (Z = −2.406, ) and raisins (Z = −3.409, ), but less muesli (Z = −2.468, ) than controls. Although this proof-of-concept study found no significant association between mycotoxin exposure and PD status, the detection of multiple mycotoxins in both groups and their correlation with dietary patterns suggest a need for further investigation. Future research involving larger cohorts and longitudinal designs is warranted to elucidate the potential role of chronic dietary mycotoxin exposure in PD pathogenesis.

Abstract Aflatoxins, primarily produced by Aspergillus species, remain a major concern for global food safety and public health. Among them, aflatoxin B 1 is notably toxic, associated with hepatocellular carcinoma, immunosuppression, and acute toxicity in both humans and animals. These contaminants frequently affect essential food crops, such as maize, peanuts, and cereals, especially in low-resource regions. Traditional detection methods, although reliable and widely adopted for regulatory purposes, still face challenges in sensitivity and processing time. In contrast, conventional detoxification approaches, such as chemical or physical treatments, can raise concerns regarding efficiency and environmental compatibility. Emerging nanotechnology-based strategies under research aim to address these specific limitations. In this context, nanotechnology has emerged as a powerful and exclusive innovative approach to aflatoxin management, leveraging materials with high surface area, tunable reactivity, and favourable biocompatibility. This review explores the distinct roles of nanomaterials in aflatoxin management, highlighting their contribution to ultra-sensitive detection systems and, separately, their function in detoxification and mitigation mechanisms. In detection, nanosensors based on gold nanoparticles, carbon nanostructures, and aptamer-functionalised platforms enable rapid identification of different molecules at trace levels. In contrast, for detoxification, photocatalytic and adsorptive nanomaterials, such as TiO 2 , ZnO, and graphene oxide exhibit strong capability to degrade or remove these toxins. The integration of these materials into smart packaging systems enables real-time monitoring and reduces contamination risk during storage and distribution. Moreover, the use of green-synthesised nanoparticles provides an eco-friendly pathway toward safer food technologies. Despite significant advancements, several challenges remain. Issues such as nanoparticle stability, industrial scalability, long-term biosafety, and regulatory acceptance must be addressed to facilitate real-world implementation. This review critically assesses recent developments in both detection and detoxification, treated as complementary but independent pillars of aflatoxin control, while outlining future interdisciplinary directions for innovation. Ultimately, nanotechnology holds great potential to reshape aflatoxin risk management and contribute to more resilient and sustainable food systems worldwide.

Abstract In its simplest form, risk is the product of hazard, i.e. toxic potency of a chemical substance, and exposure, or dose. Hazard-based decision-making is based solely on hazard without any consideration of exposure. The development of mitigation strategies should prioritise mycotoxins that regularly occur at undesirable levels in commonly consumed commodities, wherein both the toxicological profiles and effectiveness of mitigation are understood with a reasonable degree of certainty. This manuscript presents a framework for risk prioritisation of mycotoxins in food, integrating hazard assessment, exposure evaluation, and for the first time appraisal of mitigation strategies. More specifically, by (1) identifying the mycotoxins relevant for each food categories, by (2) assigning a severity score for the pivotal effect of each mycotoxin; by (3) calculating the respective food-categories’ contributions to the combined exposures and by (4) assessing the existing mitigation strategies, the framework aims to prioritise mycotoxins based on their health risks and potential for effective risk mitigation. As a proof of concept, the framework was applied in two wheat-based food commodities – bread and pasta –, focusing on Ochratoxin A (OTA), Deoxynivalenol (DON), and Zearalenone (ZEN), revealing that OTA in bread is the highest priority concern, followed by DON in bread.

Abstract Due to limited control at the household level, secondary metabolites of moulds, such as mycotoxins, are primarily ingested in domestic settings. This is because some people commonly remove only the visibly mouldy portions of spoiled food and consume the remaining parts, which may still contain significant levels of these partly toxic compounds. From a food safety perspective, this raises the questions of how far these secondary metabolites diffuse into the food and how toxic they are for humans. To investigate these issues, 57 jars of mouldy jam were collected from Austrian producers. The dominant contaminating fungal species were tentatively identified as Penicillium cf. crustosum , Penicillium cf. bialowiezense , and Aspergillus cf. niger . LC-MS/MS analysis of toxin extracts of these jams revealed that 1 cm below the mycelium most secondary metabolites were reduced by ≥80%, with the exceptions of atlantinon A, nigragillin, mycophenolic acid, and roquefortine D. Subsequently, apricot roaster jam was inoculated with spores of P . cf. crustosum , P . cf. bialowiezense , and A . cf. niger and incubated for 14 days at room temperature. Secondary metabolites were again analysed, demonstrating a significant reduction in their concentration in layers beneath the mycelium. In jam samples taken 1-2 cm below the mycelium most secondary metabolites were reduced by ≥96%, except for andrastin A, quinolactacin A, and viridicatol. However, the migration of metabolites depends on the composition of the jam, including factors such as water activity and sugar content, the inoculated fungal strains, and the incubation time and temperature. This study focused on a short incubation period and only three different fungal strains.

Abstract Cytochalasin E is a mycotoxin produced by the microscopic fungus Aspergillus clavatus, which can be found in malting barley and malt. The reason is inappropriate storage conditions for barley, such as high temperature and humidity, and in the case of malt, local spontaneous heating of the moistened barley layer during malting. A total of 598 barley and malt samples were analysed in our study. 43 samples were found to be contaminated above the limit of quantification, of which 4 were from barley and 39 were from malt, representing 0.98% of barley samples and 20.7% of malt samples. The concentration of cytochalasin E in barley ranged from 13.5 μg/kg to 52.2 μg/kg with the mean being 23.3 μg/kg, and in malt, ranged from <LOQ (0.6 μg/kg) to 135 μg/kg with the mean being 25.1 μg/kg. Thus, under Central European conditions, contamination of malting barley and malt by cytochalasin E does not currently pose a health risk for consumers.

Abstract The exposure of breastfeeding mothers to Aflatoxin B 1 and Ochratoxin A (OTA) via contaminated foods may expose infants to potentially genotoxic and carcinogenic Aflatoxin M 1 (AFM 1 ) and OTA via breast milk (BM). We conducted a retrospective cross-sectional substudy nested within a case-control cohort to assess the potential genotoxic and carcinogenic risks of AFM 1 and OTA exposure via BM consumption in six-week-old HIV-exposed-infected (HEI), HIV-exposed-uninfected (HEU) and HIV-unexposed-uninfected (HUU) infants from Harare, Zimbabwe. The AFM 1 and OTA concentrations in BM measured via ELISA were used to determine the median probable daily intake (MPDI) and margin of exposure (MOE) for the toxins. We included 5 HEI, 124 HEU and 133 HUU infants. Among HEI infants, 2/5 (40%) consumed AFM 1 (pg/ml) (median: 6.50; range: 6.44-6.55), whereas 0/5 (0%) consumed OTA via BM. Among HEU infants, 26/105 (25%) consumed AFM 1 (pg/ml) (median: 7.35; range: 5.96-29.8), whereas 11/124 (9%) consumed OTA (ng/ml) (median: 0.20; range: 0.14-0.65) via BM. Among HUU infants, 38/116 (33%) consumed AFM 1 (pg/ml) (median: 7.70; range: 6.07-31.75), whereas 4/133 (3%) consumed OTA (ng/ml) (median: 0.24; range: 0.18-0.83) via BM. BM consumed by the infants contained AFM 1 at levels exceeding 2.5 pg/ml, the European Union limit for the toxin in traded infant foods. The MPDIs of AFM 1 (ng/kg BW per day) in HEI, HEU and HUU infants were 1.02, 1.30 and 1.19, respectively. The MPDIs of OTA (ng/kg BW per day) in HEU and HUU infants were 30.20 and 42.55, respectively. In all infants exposed to AFM 1 and OTA, the MOE was <10,000 indicating exposure at levels that are potentially genotoxic and carcinogenic. The exposure of breastfeeding mothers to mycotoxins should be minimised to protect vulnerable infants.

Abstract Maize ( Zea mays L.) a main crop worldwide, is susceptible to fungal contamination specially by Aspergillus flavus which produces aflatoxins (AFs) AFB 1 and AFB 2 . These mycotoxins are carcinogenic and can cause significant economic losses due to contamination in food and feed chains. Climate change, leading to more frequent droughts, exacerbates this issue by potentially increasing AFs contamination. Nanotechnology offers a promising option for controlling fungal pathogens and mycotoxins. Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) are particularly interesting to for their antifungal properties. This study was aimed to synthesise and characterised ZnO-NPs and to evaluate their effectiveness on reducing the A. flavus growth and AFs accumulation under in vitro (maize based medium) and in situ (irradiated maize grains) assays. ZnO-NPs were synthesised and characterised, showing stability and effective antifungal properties. In vitro , ZnO-NPs significantly reduced A. flavus growth rates by a 40-78% and AFB 1 production by 93.6-100%. This also caused hyphal deformation and unusual bulges besides a decrease in the fungal conidiation. In situ , ZnO-NPs caused reduction in fungal growth rates by ∼40% at 2 g/kg. AFs reduction was observed in a wide range of percentages even at 99%, especially at low water activities. However, some treatments increased AFs production by 2-5-fold, due to probably not homogeneous nanoparticle distribution on grain surface, suggesting potential stress responses by the fungus. Overall, ZnO-NPs demonstrate strong potential for managing aflatoxin contamination in maize, though their application must be carefully controlled to avoid unintended effects. Further field studies and environmental impact assessments are needed to optimise their use.

Abstract Molds producing aflatoxin and Ochratoxin A (OTA) are naturally present in the production, handling and/or processing environments for pistachios. Despite extensive investments by US pistachio processors to eliminate these toxins, under select conditions, these molds can produce mycotoxins that contaminate pistachios at trace levels. While the distribution of aflatoxin in pistachio lots (when present) from repeated samples is well understood given long standing regulatory testing requirements for this mycotoxin, such data for OTA had not been studied, as this mycotoxin has only been more recently regulated globally. As such, the distribution of OTA in pistachio lots after repeated sampling, versus equivalent data collected for aflatoxin, was compared. OTA sample test results for 750 United States pistachio lots being considered for European Union (EU) export were collected across three commercial labs in California. Every lot considered had at least two samples submitted for OTA testing. Sample size was a function of lot size and if the nuts were in-shell or shelled, per export guidelines. The variation in repeated sample measures for OTA, as measured by standard deviation (SD) was directly proportional to corresponding means and well described () by a straight line. Comparison with an equivalent plot derived from repeated samples of 4,367 pistachio lots for aflatoxin, found a similar linear response (). The two linear fits of SD vs mean for OTA and Total Aflatoxin were not statistically different. This equivalency means that operating characteristic (OC) curves derived from published pistachio aflatoxin sampling data should also effectively describe OTA sampling data in pistachio. Published OC curves for pistachio/aflatoxin were accessed via the online Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) mycotoxin sampling tool and compared to experimental data. The total variance for aflatoxin at 5 μg/kg predicted by the FAO tool agreed well with experimental data.

Abstract Sorting of maize ears based on husk cover at harvest may be considered as an approach to minimise the aflatoxin (AF) levels in maize grain intended for consumption. Aflatoxins are known natural human carcinogens produced by certain species of Aspergillus section (sect.) Flavi and impair livestock productivity. We investigated the influence of maize ear husk cover inadequacy on the natural infection of preharvest maize with Aspergillus sect. Flavi and contamination with AFs thereof. Additional investigated factors that may influence maize Aspergillus sect. Flavi infection and AF contamination were rainfall intensity, field burning, insect pest infestation, seed maturity and crop rotation. Maize and soil samples were collected over two seasons from two climatically contrasting regions of Zambia. One region was in the wetter Agro-Climatic Zone (ACZ) and another in the drier ACZ. Plate count technique on modified rose Bengal agar was used to quantify Aspergillus sect. Flavi densities in maize and soil. AF levels in maize were determined by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with immunoaffinity column clean-up. Aspergillus sect. Flavi was present in soils. On maize, Aspergillus sect. Flavi was mainly detected under dry spell conditions despite being detected in all soils. Similarly, AF in maize was only detected under dry spell conditions. Findings showed that inadequate husk cover alone did not influence Aspergillus sect. Flavi infection of maize and subsequent AF contamination. Rather, dry spell with late rains predisposed the Aspergillus sect. Flavi infection and AF contamination. Insect pest incidence was the second most important factor aggravating the Aspergillus sect. Flavi infection.

Abstract While proficiency testing is a useful tool to assess and monitor the performance of an analytical method, the use of comminuted test samples precludes the assessment of sample handling and preparation. These stages of the measurement process can introduce bias and significant variance into testing results. In this work, two approaches were used to prepare test material consisting of whole grain wheat containing a known amount of deoxynivalenol (DON) to be used to assess the variance due to sample preparation. The successful approach produced wheat kernel-like material from dough made with an aqueous DON solution. The produced material was physically similar to wheat kernels, with realistic DON content (mean 633 mg/kg) and low kernel-to-kernel variation (5% relative standard deviation). Test samples of whole grain durum wheat were prepared to approximate real-world samples with 0.2% fusarium damage. Fourteen participants analysed the whole grain test samples using their own sample preparation and analytical test methods. Calculated sample preparation variance, influenced by sub-sampling and comminution of test samples, varied from 0.0043 to 1.704 mg2/kg2. Sample preparation variance was significantly lower for participants that had comminuted the entire test sample as opposed to comminuting only a portion. The test samples produced provided participants with a straightforward and controlled process to assess their sample preparation and whether it is fit for their purpose.