This article investigates the history, dispersal, and partial recovery of the natural history collection of Merzifon Anatolia College, a missionary institution founded in 1886 in central Anatolia under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Developed through the scientific and pedagogical efforts of Professor Johannes Jacob Manissadjian and his students, the museum once housed thousands of botanical, entomological, zoological, geological, and paleontological specimens. Located in a purpose-built museum-library complex completed in the 1910s, the collection represented one of the most ambitious scientific enterprises undertaken by a non-state Ottoman institution. Following the upheavals of the First World War and the foundational transformations of the Turkish Republic, the college ceased operations, and the fate of its museum remained uncertain. Drawing upon archival materials, rediscovered catalogs, and specimen inventories, this study reconstructs the intellectual and institutional history of the collection, and traces its partial reconstitution through its unexpected rediscovery at Tarsus American College in the 2010s. By situating the Merzifon Anatolia College collection within the broader context of Late Ottoman scientific modernization and missionary education, this article argues that the forgotten marginal natural history collections are not merely the casualties of time, but the result of historiographical choices. In tracing the afterlife of the Merzifon collection, the article highlights the role of forgotten institutions and actors in shaping scientific knowledge beyond imperial centers.

The article analyses the philosophical and reformist views of Peter Ramus, a representative of the Renaissance period. He, as one of the prominent reformers of the Renaissance period, left a profound legacy behind. The article notes that Ramus significantly influenced the development of scentific thought through the educational and philosophical reforms he implemented. His contributions to the effective advancement of education earned him considerable renown. The article emphasizes his important role in bringing systematicity and order to education. The primary aim of his reforms was to demonstrate efficient methods for mastering knowledge. His textbooks on dialectics, rhetoric, and grammar, co-authored with Omar Talon, are emphasized as having reshaped the Renaissance educational system. His interest in mathematics and the natural sciences reflected his belief that thinking should possess an organized structure. Ramus’s views on language underpinned the relationship between thought and expression. In addition, the article discusses his substantial critiques of Aristotelian philosophy, particularly scholastic rigidity, and analyzes the reasons behind these criticism in detail. His ideas were not limited to France but influenced the development of modern teaching methods across various European countries, including England and Germany. Ramus’s reforms also paved the way for the thinking pf philosophers such as Francis Bacon, René Descartes, and Alexander Melville. The article examines Peter Ramus’s life, the essence of humanism, his literary activity, his stance against Aristotelian philosophy, and his innovations in method and logic within the intellectual context of the Renaissance, exploring his role in European pedagogy and the impact of his philosophical contributions.

The article examines certain differences between the American and the British variants and their impact on the system of the English language. The relevance of our research lies in the fact that there is a growing interest in the English language all over the world, which is directly related to the the process of globalization. The British and the American variants of English are very similar, but there are also many differences between them in terms of spelling, phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary. The main objective of the research is to investigate the following differences between the British and the American variants of English: spelling, phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary. Most of these differences are due to the unique historical and cultural development of these countries. The main purpose of knowing the differences between British and American English is to avoid difficulties in communication, when reading texts, watching movies or videos, and to ensure that speakers of both varieties of English fully understand each other. The article used research methods such as research and comparative analysis. In conclusion, it can be noted that although there are numerous differences between American and British English at the phonological, orthographic, grammatical, and lexical-semantic levels, these differences do not affect the system of the English language as a whole. Thus, this gives grounds to consider American and British English not two different languages, but two variants of the same language.

The article analyses the main political and legal consequences of the transition from a parliamentary model of governance to a presidential system as a result of the constitutional amendments carried out in the Republic of Turkey in 2017. The study evaluates, in general terms, the structural changes in the distribution of powers between the executive, legislative and judicial branches, the strengthening of the presidential institution, the narrowing of the parliament’s oversight instruments over the government, and the reforms implemented in the organizational structure of the judiciary. On the basis of a comparative approach, it is argued that the new model formed in Turkey, differing from classical presidential and semi-presidential systems, can be characterised as a hybrid political system with party-presidential features.

Economic globalization, characterized by the internationalization of trade, investment, and production, as well as the emergence of global value chains, has turned transnational corporations into leading actors in this process. The shift of supply directions in the automobile industry, as well as the relocation of electronics, robotics, automation, and tech industries, has drawn attention to China’s outward investment strategies and their impact on various regions. Within the framework of the strategy officially launched by the People’s Republic of China in 2000, leading companies such as Huawei, Alibaba, Lenovo, BYD and COSCO play an active role in foreign investment flows. The strategy, which supports the expansion of Chinese companies into global markets, continues to affect the economic development of the South Caucasus countries – particularly Azerbaijan – by influencing infrastructure projects, energy and transportation sectors, as well as China’s role in regional cooperation formats. China’s sustained economic growth has not only expanded its global influence but also transformed the country into an active participant in globalization. Integration inti global economic processes plays a crucial role for China in terms of expanding access to international markets. China rapidly enters the domestic markets of the regions with which it trades, becoming a strong competitor for local producers. The increasing impact of China’s “Go Global” strategy, developed within the framework of economic globalization, on the geography of foreign investments – particularly in the South Caucasus region – is an inevitable process. The objective of this study is to analyze the four developmental phases of China’s “Go Global” strategy and to identify the specific characteristics of this strategy in the South Caucasus direction.

Doubt occupies a central place in the philosophical system of Rene Descartes. R. Descartes saw doubt not only as distrust and hesitation, but as the initial and necessary stage of obtaining true knowledge. R. Descartes' methodological doubt distances a person from thinking far from logical analysis. It allows you to carefully filter every thought and accept only clear, accurate and substantiated knowledge. Methodological doubt is important not only for the improvement of philosophical thinking. It is also important for justifying the process of arriving at correct conclusions in scientific research. R. Descartes believed that a universal method can be applied in all fields of knowledge, both in philosophy and in science. The method of doubt is based on the principles of analysis, synthesis, clarity and precision. It directs human thought systematically and consistently. According to R. Descartes, the value of knowledge depends not on its source, but on the systematicity of the method applied. Science and philosophy are not separate from each other, both are built on the same methodological basis. R. Descartes' methodological doubt played a decisive role in the formation of research and evidence-based science. If there were no such principle, scientific knowledge would still develop based on religious and philosophical authorities. R. Descartes's doubt, principles of sequential analysis and clarity form the basis of modern scientific research culture. They play a revolutionary role in the systematic understanding of the human mind. R. Descartes' philosophical and methodological iris plays a role in the basic principles of both classical and modern scientific thought.

Treadmills were introduced into British jails in the early decades of the nineteenth century to meet legislative demands that prisoners be subject to systems of hard labor. Mechanisms were designed so that treadmill work would continue, even if entirely unproductive, and systems applied that allegedly permitted precise scrutiny of labor performed and of prisoners’ bodily conditions. In the plentiful publicity and fierce controversy that raged around the workings and applications of this scheme, especially about the relation between labor and production, the hosts of numerical accounts compiled in prisons and presented to commissioners and surveyors, became important evidence in contemporary projects on the physiology and physics of the laboring body, and, more generally, of the proper means of labor measurement. Some experimenters themselves walked the treadmills in London jails, conducting trials on their own conduct and their own bodily state so as to gather what was claimed was decisive information about the ways in which work was performed and its chemical and physiological basis best analyzed. Penal machinery played a significant and, in some clear respects, decisive role in the formation of sciences of energy and of labor power in the mid-nineteenth century conjuncture of mechanical discipline and the extraction of value from the human body.

In 1589, young Caspar Bauhin (1560–1624) became the first professor of the newly established chair of anatomy and botany at the University of Basel. This article sets out the life of Bauhin, based on numerous manuscript sources and letters, against the backdrop of the central role he and his printed works played in pre-Linnean botany. As a particularly impressive example of how independent scientific disciplines were established at early modern universities, Bauhin systematically trained a whole generation of scholars to become qualified botanists, while the University of Basel became the undisputed center of the science in the German-speaking world around 1600. With regard to empirical research, Bauhin’s herbarium was one of the most extensive of its time, and its layout and design corresponded to his plan of a historia generalis plantarum . To further his career, the young scholar built up a large network of correspondents. These connections also allowed him to collect foreign and exotic botanical samples. Even the Phytopinax (Basel, 1596), Bauhin’s earliest botanical publication, contained a list of people who had sent plants or seeds to Basel, designed to emphasize the scientific importance of the youthful author through his far-reaching scholarly connections.

In this article we explain why a tradition of instructions issued for the proper conduct of natural history and founded in the eighteenth century became such an influential source for pervasive notions of race in the nineteenth century. In particular, we locate the transnational influence of this tradition in the work of James Cowles Prichard (1786–1848) between his time as a student of medicine at the University of Edinburgh and the posthumous publication of his own instructions for “ethnology” in John Herschel’s A Manual of Scientific Enquiry in 1849. By locating Prichard in this intellectual context, we connect the transnational Enlightenment tradition of instructing natural history travel (section one), to the practice of collecting both artifacts and human remains (section two), and the role of both ideas and collected items that transformed people into specimens by the turn of the century (section three). We argue that this little-known but profoundly influential pan-European tradition of instructed natural history activated a set of ideas and knowledge practices in a wide range of colonial settings, regularly marked by violence and enslavement, that transformed human beings into specimens to be compiled in quest of a science of race.

The article examines the main tasks of developing Russian speech, types of ‎speech activity, work on the perception of Russian speech in close connection ‎with the studied lexical and grammatical means of the Russian language and ‎active speaking: mastering the norms of literary pronunciation, spelling, word ‎inflection when teaching Russian as a foreign language. The purpose of ‎developing Russian speech in military personnel in Russian as a foreign ‎language classes at a military university is unprepared speech, i.e. speech ‎activity that provides the opportunity for linguistic communication in natural ‎or created situations. Methods for developing monologue and dialogic speech ‎are given. The main tasks that need to be solved in the process of teaching both ‎monologue and dialogic utterance are formulated. At the initial stage, dialogic ‎speech dominates. Students master conversational and etiquette formulas. ‎Microdialogues help to adequately perceive Russian speech in everyday life ‎situations, as well as generate their own statements. Monologue speech is characterized by relative semantic completeness and communicative focus of ‎the statement.‎ Based on the results of methodological and pedagogical research, the article ‎highlights the problems of the methodology for developing oral and written ‎Russian speech in non-fluent and basic-level students of non-linguistic special-‎purpose universities. The purpose of the article is to find ways to intensify the ‎process of developing Russian speech in classes of Russian as a foreign ‎language, and to optimize the work of students and teachers. The presented ‎results were obtained in the course of experimental work conducted in various ‎academic groups of students of short-term courses of initial and intermediate ‎levels of studying Russian as a foreign language at the Center of Foreign ‎Languages of the Military Administration Institute.