The Ait Herbil oases (Timoulay Oumaloukt and Timoulay n'Tozomte) represent an ancient center of human settlement and civilization. They feature emblematic landscapes that reflect a profound interaction between humans and the natural environment. These landscapes possess both heritage and spatial identities that distinguish them from neighboring oases, due to their historical adaptation to the region’s challenging environmental conditions. A preliminary examination of the Timoulay Oumaloukt and Timoulay n'Tozomte oases reveals distinct functions and land-use patterns. These are agrarian environments shaped by a traditional subsistence economy. Over generations, farmers have molded these highly anthropized landscapes by making use of the available natural resources. However, recent environmental and socio-spatial transformations have triggered an unprecedented crisis, resulting in major imbalances within the landscape systems. The objective of this study is to characterize the anthropogenic landscapes of the Timoulay Oumaloukt and Timoulay n'Tozomte oases, located in the territorial commune of Aday, by analyzing their spatial organization, functioning, and dynamics. The methodology consists, first, of a general diagnosis and typology of the region’s anthropized landscapes. It then focuses on the current state of four specific types of anthropized features: agricultural terraces, threshing floors, collective granaries (locally known as Agadir), and agrarian landscapes. The study is primarily based on field visits and surveys, semi-structured interviews, climate data (1981–2022), and data derived from Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, and analysis of photographic documentation collected between 2017 and 2022. NDVI imagery for 1987, 2001, and 2023 reveals a marked decline in oasis vegetation: from 61.35 ha in 1987, to 53.21 ha in 2001, and 47 ha in 2023, mainly due to recurrent droughts between 1981 and 2022. This differential dynamic reflects two contrasting trends: agricultural abandonment in some areas, and increased human pressure in others—both shaped by natural, socio-economic, and technological factors. Persistent droughts have accelerated agricultural decline, contributing to the socio-spatial exodus of the population. This research provides a scientific foundation for further investigation into oasis landscapes, offering critical insights to inform regional strategies for resource management and heritage conservation.

Forest fires are becoming increasingly frequent, leading to the loss of human life, ecosystem fragmentation, and higher greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Therefore, this study aims to identify, quantify and classify the risk levels of forest fires in the District Headquarters of the municipality of Cachoeiro de Itapemirim (Brazil/ES). To this end, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method was used to prioritize the factors contributing to fire risk. Three models were identified: R1 included natural factors, R2 biological and socioeconomic factor and R3 the Months Without Rain. The sum of area occupied by moderate, high, and very high fire risk levels enabled the identification of greater fire risk zonification in each model, being 18,97% of the total area for R1, 59,81% for R2, and 71,41% for R3. These results highlight the significant influence of human intervention and climatic conditions on forest fire risk.

In recent years, there is growing evidence of changes in fire frequency, with varying intensities and magnitudes across ecosystems worldwide. La Pampa, located in central Argentina, is affected by significant annual wildfire activity. This study aimed to analyze variations in climatic and spectral indices over a 29-year period (1995–2023) to identify patterns that enhance the understanding of the fire regime in xerophytic shrublands. Additionally, trends in climatic variables were evaluated within the framework of global climate change. Meteorological data and records of burned area were analyzed. The Standardized Precipitation and Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) was calculated at four-time scales, and monthly Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data for shrubs and grasslands were obtained. Trend detection and correlation analysis between variables were performed using the Theil-Sen estimator and the non-parametric Mann-Kendall test. A SARIMA model was used to explore lagged correlations between selected variables. SPEI values typically ranged between -2 to 2, with SPEI-12 showing the highest correlation with large, severe fire events. NDVI for shrubland and grassland exhibited positive correlations with SPEI-24 and SPEI-6/SPEI-12, respectively. SPEI-12 and burned area displayed a significant negative correlation. Monitoring climatic and spectral indices over time helps identify periods of phytomass accumulation and ignition thresholds. In the context of climate change, the observed increasing trends in precipitation, mean temperature, and maximum temperature suggest a future with heightened fire frequency in xerophytic shrublands. This study underscores the importance of integrating climatic and vegetation indices to improve fire regime understanding and management in fire-prone ecosystems.

In the 21st century, climate change has become the greatest global threat that affects different countries in different ways, affecting different areas, from the increased risk of desertification due to rising temperatures to areas at risk of flooding caused by increased rainfall. Combating climate change has therefore become a priority for many forests in the Andes. In this research, a study was carried out on the possible changes in the forests, as this is one of the regions with the greatest variety of ecosystems and forest formations in the world, analysing the current and future distribution of eight forest formations throughout the study area, by means of potential distribution models, using Maxent software, under three emission scenarios RCP 4.5, RCP 6.0 and RCP 8.5; with projections for the current period 2010-2039 and the future 2040-2069. The results show significant changes in the potential area of distribution of several forests across the different scenarios. Most of the analysed forests will suffer modifications in their current distribution, as is the case of the Lowland Forests and Highland Shrublands of the Humid Puna, which will decrease by more than 60% of their current extent in Bolivia. In the future distribution all the forests analysed will reduce their potential range, such as the Submontane and Dry Montane Forest of the Northern Yungas by 81.6% and the Low Andean Forest of the Western Xerophytic Puna (Peru) by 89.5% in the most restrictive scenario RCP 8.5, which may cause shifts to higher latitudes, with the loss of habitats.

La combinación de los fondos documentales de AEMET y los Libros Resúmenes de Observaciones Anuales nos ha permitido elaborar un catálogo de lluvias extraordinarias en el territorio peninsular español durante el periodo 1916-2022. Este catálogo incluye 19.184 observaciones diarias de máximas mensuales de precipitación que superaron 100 mm, procedentes de 4.325 observatorios y producidas en 4.814 días distintos. Con cantidades superiores a 200 mm /día se han contabilizado 1.130 registros, agrupados en 530 días procedentes de 664 observatorios. La distribución espacial de estas precipitaciones pone de manifiesto que estos eventos se pueden producir en cualquier punto del territorio, si bien se detecta una concentración tanto de registros como de fechas en las costas, especialmente en las del mar Mediterráneo en el caso de cantidades superiores a 200 mm. En general, las precipitaciones extraordinarias se producen con mayor frecuencia en otoño. En el extremo opuesto, los meses de verano son los que menos registros acumulan, así como un menor número de eventos diarios. Estos sucesos están muy ligados a situaciones sinópticas determinadas, y su estudio por Divisiones Hidrológicas permite diferenciar aquellas afectadas por advecciones atlánticas del oeste (Cantábrico, Duero, Guadiana, Guadalquivir, parcialmente Andalucía Oriental) de las advecciones mediterráneas del este (Pirineos orientales, Júcar, Segura, parcialmente Andalucía oriental), mientras la División del Ebro por su extensión y posición recibe influencias diversas. La disposición del relieve parece ser uno de los factores que determinan la extensión en el espacio de los episodios de lluvias extraordinarias. La frecuencia de estos sucesos extraordinarios no muestra señales de variación en el tiempo.

Land use and land cover (LULC) mapping is essential for land-based climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies. This study presents the development of 10-meter high-resolution (HR) land use maps within the RethinkAction H2020 project, aimed at enhancing spatial planning for climate mitigation and adaptation. The methodology integrates multi-source remote sensing data, machine learning classification techniques, and auxiliary datasets to generate accurate and transferable land use classifications across six European bioclimatic regions. The study employs Sentinel-2 and Landsat-8 imagery, using supervised classification with Random Forest (RF) and Geographic Object-Based Image Analysis (GEOBIA) to enhance accuracy and minimize spectral confusion. This approach resulted in the creation of twelve HR land use maps at two classification levels, covering six case study (CS) areas. A key contribution of this research is the generation of suitability maps, which assess the potential for implementing land-based mitigation and adaptation solutions (LAMS) such as reforestation, water harvesting, and photovoltaic energy development. This study highlights the importance of integrating remote sensing, machine learning, and spatial analysis to support evidence-based decision-making in land use planning, offering a scalable and replicable methodology for detailed LULC classification.

This study presents an analysis of the main snow cover dynamics in the Cantabrian Mountains (northern Spain) using satellite imagery, examining the snow cover dates of appearance and melting, extent, duration and persistence. The study area comprises 36 hydrographic watersheds. Using Google Earth Engine (GEE), 14,082 satellite images (2000-2024) from MODIS-Terra, Landsat 5-8, and Sentinel-2 were analysed to create daily snow cover classifications. Seasonal series of Snow Cover Fraction (SCF) were extracted by 500-meter elevation intervals in each watershed and analyzed to extract indicators and trends. Results reveal reductions in snow cover extent. In autumn, it is reduced at ~-2%/decade above 1,500 m. Notable and significant negative trends (~-10% and up to -16%/decade in some basins) were detected in winter, particularly on the southern slopes of the Cantabrian Mountains. In spring, most basins show negligible and homogeneous trends among watersheds, except above 2,000 m, where pronounced reductions in extent (2.5% per decade) are observed. A shortening snow season is detected, caused by earlier occurrences of the Last Ephemeral Snow Day (LESD), occurring 2.7 days by decade earlier vs 0.4 days by decade earlier in case of the First Ephemeral Snow Day (FESD). The duration of the first snow cover of the season decreased noticeably above 1,500 m (9 days/decade). Peak seasonal snow cover extent tends to occur slightly later, and above 2,000 m. These events are markedly shorter due to a delay in the Snow Onset Day (SOD) and earlier Snow Melt Out Day (SMOD). The maximum SCF occurs between January 22nd and February 5th, depending on altitude, and is shifting earlier, especially at lower elevations. The mean snow cover duration is 16.4 days, with notable altitudinal variability (6.6 days at 500–1000 m and 38.5 days above 2,000 m), decreasing by 1 day/decade, with reductions up to 5.8 days/decade above 2,000 m, where the duration of the longest snow cover has decreased 8 days/decade. Snow cover persistence has declined by 1.2%/decade, with sharper reductions (3.4%) above 1,500 m. Despite biases from prolonged periods of cloud cover, dense canopy cover in some watersheds or the occurrence of rapid snow accumulation and melting events undetected by the satellites, findings ultimately reveal decreases in the duration, extent and persistence of snow cover since the early 21st century, although some of these are not statistically significant. These results highlight shifts in seasonal snow cycles, emphasizing the need for further research with longer time series and alternative observational datasets.

Coastal desert ecosystems, such as the Lomas and Tillandsiales, are essential for the well-being of local populations, providing vital ecosystem goods and services, including climate regulation and water supply. These ecosystems are nationally recognized as important conservation targets. However, the Lomas and Tillandsiales in Tacna have been adversely affected and ecologically degraded due to uncontrolled population growth and inadequate regulation of human activities, such as agriculture, mining, and livestock grazing. Therefore, it is crucial to implement effective conservation strategies. Despite this need, when governmental entities delineate territories for potential protected areas, existing land use is often prioritized, leading to the exclusion of areas under current use rather than considering geographical criteria or ecological attributes of these vital ecosystems. This practice raises questions about the effectiveness of conservation efforts. To assess the proposed polygons for new protected areas by regional authorities, we compared these with natural ecosystem boundaries using various geographical tools. This comparison revealed substantial differences in geographical, ecological, and landscape metrics, indicating a decrease in ecological similarity and potentially lower effectiveness for conservation. We identified variations in geomorphological and morphometric diversity, with extreme cases showing coefficients of variability of 56% for the Gravelius index, 52% for the altitude index, and 43% for the morphometric protection index. These factors are critical as they strongly correlate with biodiversity, ecological processes, and the provision of ecosystem services, which are the main goals of conservation. Given these discrepancies, the newly proposed conservation area may inadequately fulfill its objectives. Once designated, the authorities should design and implement a management model that prioritizes expanding the protected areas to their natural limits, promoting restoration, and conducting ongoing monitoring of the metrics outlined in this research. Conservation should not merely involve declaring a spatial area as a reserve; it also requires defining these spaces based on tools and geographical knowledge to ensure the adequate protection and conservation of the Lomas and Tillandsiales ecosystems.