This chapter provides an examination of the costs and benefits of being social, including temperament and personality, at the species and the individual level. The chapter discusses how some species, like many feline species, are solitary, and the costs (such as less protection from predators) and benefits (such as not having to share resources with others) that result from this lifestyle choice. Canids, conversely, tend to live in social family groups, where they benefit from having more protection from potential predators and more assistance with hunting, but also having to share their resources. The authors discuss the costs and benefits of domestication and how canids’ social structure played into this. The authors also examine the importance of temperament and personality, the Encephalization Quotient (EQ), Hamilton’s Rule, altruism, and kin selection.

Social structure, and hence social behavior, is largely based on limited resources. When resources are limited, a reasonable method for distribution is needed. Hierarchies are one solution, but when resources are not limited, there is no need for a social hierarchy. Species that evolved in different ecological niches have developed different social structures and have different strategies for the distribution of resources. The authors examine the “dominance theory” controversy, how it works, and whether or not it should be used with our dogs. The authors define “aggression” as it pertains to the field of ethology (and to dogs in particular) and the differences between aggression and dominance. The chapter also examines pack theory vs. punishment vs. positive reinforcement and introduces the resource holding model.

This chapter provides a brief history of evolutionary theory, including natural and artificial selection, with a focus on the origin of modern dogs (Canis familiaris) to understand the genetic history (“baggage”) and the constraints of the species. The authors examine how humans artificially selected domesticated dogs over many generations, creating almost 200 distinct breeds. This chapter also examines the differences in human co-evolution and social behavior between cats and dogs.

From Darwin to Descartes to the findings of modern ethologists, this chapter introduces the science of emotions (basal or biological, endocrine vs. higher-order or cognitive, and neocortical) to interpret animal emotional responses, behaviors, and social relationships. Emotion is important for communication and for maintaining relationships and this chapter provides an overview of the physiology of emotion. The authors also discuss the historical viewpoint of animals’ emotional lives and corresponding paradigm shifts in light of new evidence. For example, dogs are susceptible to many of the same emotional and psychological issues that humans can suffer with, including depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and grief.

This chapter provides an overview of the natural history of the species (e.g. carnivore vs. prey species, social vs. solitary) to understand behavior associated with mating and social structure based on limited resources. For example, dogs are social carnivores and opportunistic omnivores, and not grazing prey species (like horses) or small, asocial obligate carnivores (like cats). This dictates some of their behavior. Dog training methods may not apply as well to cats or to horses. This chapter provides an overview of the coevolution of humans and dogs, including shifting cultural and historical viewpoints, including the case of empathy with courthouse dogs. The authors examine the overall history of dogs and humans to determine how dogs adapted to become humans’ “first friend.”

This chapter provides an overview of sensory perception to interpret behavior and explains how certain sensory modalities are more important for dogs than they are for humans. For example, dogs have a superior sense of smell, and receive large amount of their information this way. Dogs have limited vision, though, so blind corridors in dog parks have a negative impact on them. With their keen olfactory sense, though, what does a dog park or a sick person “look” like to a dog? The authors discuss how dogs experience color, why whiskers (vibrissae) are important for them, and compare the sensory perception of dogs and cats.

This chapter introduces the concept of Game theory (conditional costs and benefits) as it applies to our dogs. The authors provide an examination of rules-of-thumb for behavior decisions, which may no longer be useful or “best,” but are deeply ingrained. The chapter provides a discussion of iterated vs non-iterated “games”: should I share or cooperate? The answer depends on whether I’ll interact with you again. If there is a small chance of interacting with someone again, the likelihood of cooperation is decreased. The authors discuss potential social strategies, including Tit for Tat (copycat, or the golden rule), grudger, always cheat, and always cooperate. The chapter provides an overview of inequity studies and also discusses the power of positive reinforcers and social pressure.

This chapter introduces that concepts of “Umwelt und Innenwelt,” the outward and inward world of the animal, which are imperative for understanding the world from the animal’s perspective and not from an “anthropomorphic” view. The authors examine whether dogs feel “guilty,” what’s salient to a dog, and how the world is perceived for them. This chapter focuses on forms of communication between dogs and humans and how dogs rely heavily upon their sense of smell (olfaction) while humans rely primarily on their sense of sight. The chapter also provides an introduction to the field of ethology (animal behavior) and using the ethogram as a tool to decipher and understand another species’ perspective.

This chapter provides an introduction to the concept of costs vs. benefits and how these factors drive decision-making and the evolution of behavior. How do dogs view potentially “risky” behaviors, and what makes a choice “worth the risk” if there is a potential cost? The authors discuss Pavlovian Conditioning, proximate and ultimate explanations for behavior, and rules of thumb with risk-taking. This chapter provides an overview of mammalian risk-taking behaviors, including the potentially risky choices that both humans and canines make. The authors also discuss the roles of altruism, reciprocal altruism, and kin selection as they pertain to risk-taking behaviors and in particular, the human-canine relationship.