Although writing remains essential for effective English language instruction, many teacher interns in Ghanaian tertiary institutions struggle with resource constraints, learner diversity, and pedagogical limitations. Guided by this concern, this study examined the key challenges teacher interns face and the strategies they employ in English language writing within the Ghanaian tertiary setting. A descriptive survey design grounded in a positivist orientation was adopted, and data were gathered from 286 teacher interns at the University of Education, Winneba. Data were collected using a closed-ended questionnaire with a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.78 and analysed using descriptive statistics. The findings indicate that heterogeneous student proficiency levels and adequate teaching and learning resources remain persistent barriers to effective writing instruction. At the same time, scaffolded approaches such as mentor feedback, structured task sequencing, and collaborative writing enhance pedagogical effectiveness and support interns’ confidence as writers and teachers. Drawing on Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory, particularly the notion of Zone of Proximal Development, the study illustrates how mentorship and collaboration mediate learning and professional growth among teacher interns. The study contributes to teacher education discourse by situating scaffolding and mediation within a resource-constrained context and suggesting practical strategies for improving writing instruction during teaching internships.

This study was conducted with the purpose of documenting the Puerto Rico–Guatemala Reading Alliances Project (PAL), which aims to promote reading and the development of readers and writers at a Maya Kaqchikel rural school in Guatemala. The foundation of this qualitative study is Vygotsky’s historical-cultural theory (in particular the concept of zone of proximal development) and the Funds of Knowledge perspective coined by Luis Moll and his collaborators. Ethnographic and action-research methodology was used, with the participation of students and their families. Anchored in the zone of proximal development, the PAL developed pedagogical practices focused on constructing meanings based on linguistic and cultural knowledge, the Funds of Knowledge of the children, their families and their community. This article presents how this community’s knowledge was used for academic purposes for curricular design, reading development and especially text production. The researchers, professors at the University of Puerto Rico, are former students of Luis Moll.

Although writing skills among elementary school students have been widely studied, research that specifically highlights the role of peer review in enhancing psychomotor skills in the processes of writing and editing official letters remains limited. This study aimed to analyze the effectiveness of peer review in improving sixth-grade students’ psychomotor abilities in writing and editing official letters at SDIT Insan Mulia Semarang. A mixed-methods approach with a concurrent triangulation design was employed, involving 21 sixth-grade students selected through purposive sampling. Data were collected through document analysis, observations, and peer review sheets, and were analyzed using descriptive statistics and qualitative thematic analysis. The findings indicate that peer review contributed significantly to improving students’ accuracy, neatness, and meticulousness, as reflected in 76.19% of students being able to write the structure of an official letter completely, 66.67% using standard language correctly, and 66.67% producing a neat layout that adhered to the prescribed format. Qualitative data further showed that students became more active, careful, and confident in reviewing their peers’ writing, and were able to identify errors, revise inappropriate sections, and reorganize the letters more effectively. These results provide a theoretical contribution to the development of collaborative learning and reinforce Vygotsky’s concept of the Zone of Proximal Development, which posits that social interaction supports simultaneous cognitive and psychomotor development. The study concludes that peer review plays a crucial role in enhancing students’ editing skills and recommends the use of peer review assessment sheets in language learning, while also opening avenues for further research with larger samples, application to various text genres, and integration of all stages of the writing process, including final revision.

Acceleration, compacting the curriculum, differentiation, and asynchronous development are just some of the many concepts that underpin the discipline of gifted education and its associated pedagogy. There is little discussion or indeed implementation of these strategies within the tertiary sector. What would tertiary education in Australia look like for students if their learning needs were actively addressed? Can we provide a tertiary learning environment for gifted and dual- or multi-exceptional students by acknowledging their zone of proximal development where learning occurs, and their prior learning is truly recognised and credited? Capable NZ, a school within Otago Polytechnic in New Zealand, provides a model that reveals a potential opportunity for universities in Australia – if we are prepared to truly assess what will work for this important cohort of learners, and to change accordingly.

The aim of this article is to contextualize the perspective of the Funds of Knowledge (FK), with particular attention to what we consider three substantial contributions made by Luis Moll. Namely: (1) the Vygotskian conceptualization of study groups involving researchers and teachers as a mediating social structure; (2) the importance of generating zones of proximal development understood as social processes of trust, collaboration and exchange; and (3) the understanding of FK as psychological tools, socially and culturally situated and distributed, which, when recognized and legitimized in educational contexts, serve to amplify, organize, sustain and regulate (mediate) learning processes. All of this is framed within the commitment and connection that Luis Moll consistently demonstrated between his thought, scholarship and life in relation to ‘ convivencia ’ (living together, coexistence). To this end, we trace the origin, development and current stage of internationalization of the FK approach, and finally describe and illustrate, through examples drawn from the contributions in this Special Issue, what we regard as five core principles, or guiding ideas, that have become consolidated over the course of this theoretical and practical approach.

ABSTRACT Although interactional metadiscourse is recognized as a key feature of effective English for academic purposes (EAP) pedagogy, its use varies significantly across teachers’ linguistic and cultural backgrounds. This corpus‐based study employs mixed quantitative and qualitative methods to address the scarcity of direct cross‐cultural comparisons by analyzing 16 EAP writing classes, contrasting native English‐speaking teachers (NESTs) in the United Kingdom with non‐native English‐speaking teachers (NNESTs) in China. Findings reveal that while both groups employ metadiscourse for pedagogical scaffolding, their strategies diverge notably. NESTs favor hedges and diverse tag questions, fostering dialogic environments that scaffold student autonomy and co‐construct knowledge. NNESTs rely more heavily on boosters and restricted directives, creating monologic environments emphasizing authoritative knowledge transmission. Interpreted through sociocultural theory, these patterns represent distinct approaches to managing the Zone of Proximal Development, demonstrating how cultural constructs such as power distance and politeness manifest in classroom discourse. The study advances theory in sociocultural learning and cross‐cultural pragmatics while offering important implications for EAP teacher education, advocating for critical reflection on how metadiscursive choices shape pedagogical environments.

Developing students' critical reading and text analysis skills is essential in today's information-driven society. However, many learners struggle with these competencies due to insufficient reading strategies, limited prior knowledge, and inadequate instructional support. Scaffolding, rooted in Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, offers a structured approach that enhances comprehension and analytical abilities by providing temporary, tailored assistance that gradually fades as students gain independence. This study explores the role of scaffolding in fostering critical reading skills, synthesizing relevant theoretical frameworks and empirical research to propose a comprehensive instructional model. Existing literature demonstrates that scaffolding strategies—such as guided reading, thinkalouds, and metacognitive support—significantly improve students’ ability to engage with complex texts. However, gaps remain in understanding how scaffolding fosters higher-order critical analysis, particularly in digital and multimodal reading environments. Additionally, limited research addresses the long-term effects of scaffolding on students’ independent learning. This paper introduces a conceptual framework integrating Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development, the Gradual Release of Responsibility Model, and Cognitive Load Theory to illustrate how scaffolding enhances deep textual engagement. The findings suggest that scaffolding not only improves comprehension but also cultivates analytical reasoning, metacognitive awareness, and learner autonomy. The implications highlight the need for differentiated scaffolding strategies to accommodate diverse learners, the integration of digital scaffolding tools, and the incorporation of scaffolding within innovative pedagogical models such as flipped classrooms. Future research should explore the role of AI-driven adaptive scaffolding and assess its long-term impact on critical literacy. By addressing these gaps, educators and policymakers can develop more effective instructional strategies that empower students as critical thinkers and lifelong learners.

Twenty first century science education prioritises student centred pedagogies that cultivate collaboration and critical thinking. Anchored in Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (1978), particularly the zone of proximal development and the mediating role of language and tools, this conceptual paper proposes a framework for how collaborative learning nurtures critical thinking cognitive skills together with dispositions such as open mindedness, intellectual humility, and truth seeking among preservice science teachers. The framework rests on positive interdependence, promotive interaction, individual accountability, and structured reflection, and it advances three pathways. First, dialogic exchange within the zone of proximal development surfaces and resolves misconceptions and strengthens reasoning. Second, task interdependence elicits metacognitive monitoring and justification through scaffolded assistance. Third, role rotation and peer feedback normalise evidence seeking dispositions and support the internalisation of regulatory talk. Gender is treated as a contextual lens that shapes participation and discourse, and equitable roles and argumentation protocols are proposed to mitigate imbalance. From this framework follow design principles for initial teacher education, including the use of authentic and ill structured problems, explicit scripting of discourse moves such as claim, evidence, and reasoning, rubric guided assessment of skills and dispositions, and sequenced activities that consolidate gains over time. The paper concludes with a research agenda to test the framework using validated measures and equity sensitive designs.

This study explores how English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners experience and make sense of their interactions with Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools to develop speaking proficiency. Using a narrative inquiry approach, in-depth interviews and reflective journals were collected from 12 learners who regularly used ChatGPT, ELSA Speak, Duolingo, and MySpeaker Rhetorich. Grounded in Sociocultural Theory and Swain’s Output Hypothesis, the analysis examined how AI mediated learners’ cognitive and affective engagement within their Zones of Proximal Development. Findings revealed that AI tools created psychologically safe spaces, reduced speaking anxiety, and provided immediate, precise feedback, fostering greater fluency, accuracy, and learner autonomy. Learners valued AI’s personalization and accessibility but also noted limitations in cultural nuance, humor, and emotional depth, positioning AI as a supplement rather than a substitute for human interaction. This study offers qualitative insights into the affective and social dimensions of AI-mediated speaking practice, highlighting strategies for integrating AI into EFL pedagogy to support both linguistic development and emotional readiness for communication.

The rapid integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in education has created opportunities to reimagine language learning and academic writing support. This study introduces ScaffoldED AI, an innovative teaching strategy integrating scaffolding steps into AI-assisted writing. Unlike general-purpose AI applications, ScaffoldED AI is grounded in Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory and the Flower and Hayes Cognitive Process Model, positioning AI as both a mediational aid within the Zone of Proximal Development and a cognitive partner in managing the complex processes of planning, translating, and reviewing ideas. ScaffoldED AI supports learners through structured prompts, adaptive feedback, and guided planning strategies, implemented via platforms such as ChatGPT, Gamma, and Canva. These features help reduce cognitive load, generate ideas, and sustain writing momentum. Its relevance to language education lies in addressing common challenges in academic writing, such as organisation, linguistic confidence, and writing-related anxiety, while fostering long-term development of academic literacy skills. The study was conducted with both tertiary and secondary ESL students, capturing perspectives across different stages of language learning. A Google Form survey revealed that learners reported significant benefits, including reduced writing anxiety, enhanced efficiency and increased confidence in producing written work. At the same time, concerns were raised regarding over-reliance and ethical use, highlighting the importance of responsible integration and clear guidelines. The study concludes that ScaffoldED AI can serve as a pedagogical ally in secondary and higher education, empowering learners with greater autonomy, reducing barriers to effective writing, and enriching teaching practices

IntroductionThe rapid advancement of AI technology is fundamentally transforming traditional music creation and influencing music education. However, whether and how the use of AI genuinely enhances musical creativity remains a subject for further exploration. This study aims to investigate the impact of AI usage on the musical creativity of music majors.MethodsGrounded in the “zone of proximal development” and social cognitive theory, this study constructed a theoretical model. The model introduced “musical self-efficacy” and “musical emotional intelligence” as mediating variables to explore the role of individual psychological factors. A quantitative approach was employed, utilizing questionnaire surveys and structural equation modeling (SEM) to analyze the relationships.ResultsThe findings revealed that: (1) The use of AI had a significant positive impact on enhancing musical creativity. (2) Musical emotional intelligence mediated the relationship between AI use and creativity, suggesting that individuals with higher emotional intelligence could better leverage AI. (3) Musical self-efficacy also served as a mediator, indicating that one’s belief in their own abilities influenced the effectiveness of AI tool use. (4) Music self-efficacy and music emotional intelligence acted as sequential mediators, highlighting the important moderating role of psychological factors between technology and creativity.DiscussionThis study deepens the understanding of the relationship between AI technology and musical creativity. It provides practical guidance for higher music education, emphasizing the need to cultivate students’ self-efficacy and emotional intelligence in AI-assisted creative environments to achieve a synergistic development of technology and creativity.

Carnatic music, the classical art form of South India, demands precise shruti (pitch) alignment, a skill novice learners often struggle to internalize within traditional oral pedagogies. This study examines the effectiveness of a culturally responsive Visual Pitch Meter (VPM) designed to enhance pitch internalization through real-time visual feedback. A quasi-experimental, mixed-methods design engaged 50 novice Carnatic vocal students (25 experimental, 25 control) across 16 sessions over 8 weeks, integrating auditory training with VPM assistance. Grounded in Constructivist learning theory, Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), and the Responsibility Alignment Framework for Learning Dynamics (RALD), the intervention reduced pitch deviation in the experimental group from 7.24 Hz to 1.14 Hz (Cohen’s d = 0.54, p < 0.001). Teacher-rated accuracy and student self-efficacy also improved significantly (p < 0.001). Qualitative analysis revealed recurring themes of empowerment, initial technological adjustment, and eventual learner independence, supporting quantitative trends. Aligned with Sustainable Development Goals 4, 9, and 11, the VPM offers a scalable, culturally sensitive framework for modernizing oral music pedagogy without undermining its heritage-based learning ethos.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-21998-0.

Assessment in English Language Teaching (ELT) is at a critical juncture, moving away from traditional, product-focused evaluation towards more holistic, learner-centered paradigms. This article synthesizes conceptual and empirical literature to argue for an integrated assessment framework grounded in sociocultural learning theory. Traditional assessment methods, often characterized by standardized tests and factual-recall questions, promote a narrow conception of learning, create negative washback effects, and can perpetuate systemic inequities. In response, this article examines an alternative paradigm rooted in Assessment for Learning (AfL), which emphasizes process-oriented, authentic, and performance-based approaches. A systematic review of the literature was conducted, focusing on key pillars of alternative assessment, including performance-based tasks, portfolio assessment, and the mediational roles of feedback, interaction, and scaffolding. The findings indicate that these alternative methods, when unified under a Vygotskian framework of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), are more effective at fostering communicative competence, critical thinking, and learner autonomy. The discussion addresses the pedagogical implications of this framework across the four language skills, confronts the significant implementation challenges, including the need for enhanced teacher assessment literacy and the reality of standardized testing, and considers the ethical dimensions of assessment. The article concludes that a thoughtful integration of process and authentic assessment is not merely a pedagogical choice but a necessary step toward empowering students as confident, lifelong language learners.

Assessing both language and content has long been recognized as a central challenge in the Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). This study investigates how corpus-informed Dynamic Assessment (DA) can capture learners&amp;rsquo; development of subject knowledge and disciplinary literacy in an undergraduate Business English course taught through CLIL. Grounded in Vygotskian sociocultural theory, DA integrates assessment with mediation, enabling assessment to reveal both actual performance and developmental potential. Thirty-two undergraduate Business English majors participated in a one-semester quasi-experimental study conducted in the course &amp;ldquo;Comprehensive Business English.&amp;rdquo; Corpus keyword analysis was applied to pre- and post-instruction writing tasks to trace changes in learners&amp;rsquo; use of disciplinary vocabulary and collocations, while corpus-informed feedback served as mediation. After one semester of instruction, results show that learners&amp;rsquo; increased use and greater variety of business keywords indicate deeper conceptual understanding and enhanced disciplinary literacy. Collocational and pattern analyses of the focal business keyword &amp;ldquo;price&amp;rdquo; further suggest a shift from descriptive to analytical expressions, evidencing movement within learners&amp;rsquo; zone of proximal development (ZPD). These findings suggest that corpus-informed DA provides a useful means of assessing and fostering both content learning and language development in CLIL and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) pedagogy.

The purpose of this study is to describe and qualitatively analyze the implementation of the language environment based on Lev Vygotsky’s theory in the practice of speaking skills among students of Fadl Al-Fadhlan Islamic Institute in Semarang. This research employed a qualitative approach with a descriptive field method, using observation, interviews, and documentation as data collection techniques. Data were analyzed following the Miles and Huberman model, which involves data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing. The findings reveal that language environment programs—such as compulsory Arabic classes, conversation sessions, lectures, public lectures, and speech training—align with the concepts of social interaction, the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), and scaffolding. These programs focus on developing fluency, accuracy, logical structure, communicative competence, vocabulary mastery, clear pronunciation, and students’ confidence in speaking Arabic. However, variations in students’ language proficiency remain a challenge, as the time required to achieve the expected competencies differs. The uniqueness of this study lies in its integration of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory with applied field analysis in a contemporary Arabic context, providing an original qualitative model that significantly contributes to the development of speaking skill pedagogy in Arabic language education institutions.

ABSTRACT The integration of artificial intelligence into psychotherapy presents both opportunities and challenges. While AI offers potential benefits such as improved access, efficiency, and diagnostic support, it also raises profound ethical and legal concerns. This paper examines these issues through systemic and developmental frameworks, focusing on how AI reshapes professional reasoning, clinical skill development, and therapeutic presence. Drawing on organizational theory, bounded rationality, and Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development, we analyze the ethical implications of AI as both a scaffold and a potential source of dependency. We argue that ethical integration requires transparency, human oversight, cultural responsiveness, and regulatory safeguards. Rather than proposing static certification, we call for interdisciplinary oversight boards, algorithmic audits, and participatory design processes that place clinicians and clients at the center of evaluation. The paper concludes with a reorientation toward ethical integration, defined as the principle-based adoption of AI that enhances, rather than replaces, human judgment and relational care.

ABSTRACT This study adapts Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development to introduce the Zone of Proximal Employment framework for sustainable career development. It identifies adjacent work domains, where professional development and support enable career progression and regeneration. Using the career development workforce in Australian higher education as an example, we conducted 1) a quantitative job posting analysis (N = 222 936, January 2012–March 2025) to map adjacent career development work domains and 2) a qualitative case study to illustrate key constraints and enablers of cross-zone movements. The results provide an overview of employment areas directly related, closely related, incidentally related, and conditionally related to career development work, including job titles, skills, salaries, and employment types. Cross-zone mobility potential is further illustrated by a regenerative narrative featuring restoration, reinvigoration, and renewal. The Zone of Proximal Employment framework offers a relational and scaffolded model of career sustainability, with theoretical and practical implications for third-space professionals.

Research on group dynamic assessment has predominantly focused on whole-class mediation, with limited attention given to alternative formats such as in smaller groups. Grounded in sociocultural theory, the present study explored how a small-group online dynamic assessment using video conferencing (i.e., Zoom) and Google Docs enhanced the English academic writing abilities of university-level second language (L2) learners. Twelve students in an intermediate academic writing course were divided into four groups, each consisting of three to four students. An adjusted cumulative group dynamic assessment approach was implemented over three week cycles. The analysis examined both quantitative and qualitative changes in teacher mediation and student responsiveness, as observed in relevant episodes both within and across sessions. For the within-session analysis, students’ initial silences in response to teacher prompts gradually decreased, showing a linear progression toward different forms of self-regulation. This trend indicated overall growth in the group’s zone of proximal development. In contrast, the across-session analysis focused on one group member (Sam), who exhibited a less even developmental trajectory. Although the quantity of teacher mediation did not significantly change, the peer comments exchanged (a)synchronously and the qualitative shifts in Sam's responses to teacher mediation pointed to an emerging understanding of L2 writing concepts. Additionally, the online multimodal affordances of Google Docs and video conferencing further reinforced mediating opportunities that supported group collaboration. Overall, the findings underscore the pedagogical potential of a small-group online dynamic assessment for fostering L2 writing development.

Individualized instruction—teaching that systematically adapts goals, content, pacing, assessment, and support to each learner—has re-emerged as a core paradigm in contemporary education. While its promise is widely acknowledged, educators still face conceptual and design challenges when moving from general advocacy to classroom enactment. This article develops an integrated account of individualized instruction by clarifying its didactic principles and translating them into a coherent methodological foundation usable across subjects and levels. Using a design-based conceptual synthesis that draws on sociocultural learning theory, mastery learning, universal design for learning, formative assessment, self-regulated learning, and learning analytics, the study articulates how learner profiles, adaptive pathways, scaffolding, and feedback cycles interact to yield measurable learning gains. The paper proposes an operational model aligning aims, evidence, and tasks through backward design and explains how to calibrate difficulty and support within each learner’s zone of proximal development while preserving curricular integrity. Practical implications include structuring diagnostic entry points, sequencing micro-targets, orchestrating multimodal resources, and deploying formative data to guide timely interventions without fragmenting the learning community. The discussion situates individualized instruction relative to differentiation and personalization, addresses teacher workload and equity concerns, and outlines governance for responsible data use. The article concludes with guidance on evaluating impact through mastery criteria, growth measures, and metacognitive indicators, establishing a roadmap for evidence-informed implementation in schools and universities.

Coding and computational thinking have become a worldwide concern in the K-12 education curriculum. The conventional teacher-led pedagogical designs, however, have difficulty supporting the varying learning speed, thought processes, and motivation levels of young learners who have to grapple with the sophisticated programming concepts in the Scratch, Python, and JavaScript languages. This places a very big difference between what the education aims and what the students achieve, with problems in debugging, declining interest, and failure to solve problems independently. The given problem is discussed in the paper, where a detailed framework of Artificial Intelligence (AI) Tutors is proposed and analyzed that will complement the education in the field of coding. Using a conceptual analysis and framework development approach, the present study will compare the traditional, one-to-many approach of teaching to an AI-Tutor-Augmented model. We present the Adaptive Pedagogical Scaffolding (APS) system, a conceptual framework of an effective AI tutor, and it consists of five main modules, a Learner Profiling Module, a Personalized Pacing Engine, a Real-Time Feedback Generator, a Socratic Hinting System, and a Motivational Engine. The discussion reveals how the framework has the potential to bring about important pedagogical benefits, such as dynamically personalized learning trajectories, real-time and context-sensitive feedback and development of metacognitive debugging capabilities. AI tutors will be able to achieve a higher level of engagement, retention, and autonomy in problem-solving by offering adaptive scaffolding based on the Zone of Proximal Development of each student. The paper also provides the implications of this shift which are critical as it does not replace human educators, but serves as an effective tool of collaboration that enhances the capacity of an instructor. It also critically assesses the constraints and ethical implications such as the dangers of over-scaffolding as well as the task of reproducing the support of human affectiveness. The paper ends by concluding on the potential transformations of AI tutors in order to develop a more equitable, engaging and effective coding education ecosystem to enable more innovators to emerge in the coming generation.