Rhinopithecus Bieti Research Articles

Overwintering strategy of Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys: adjustments in activity scheduling and foraging patterns

Temperate forests are characterized by pronounced climatic and phenological seasonality. Primates inhabiting such environments experience prolonged resource scarcity and low ambient temperatures in winter and are expected to adjust time allocation and foraging behavior so as to maintain their energy balance. We analyzed the activity scheduling of a group of Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) based on data collected over 20months in the high-altitude (>3000m) Samage Forest, Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve, PRC. The forest consists of evergreen conifers and oaks and deciduous broadleaf trees. The diet varied seasonally, with young leaves preferentially exploited in spring and fruits in summer. The monkeys subsisted on readily available fallback resources (mainly lichens) in winter [Grueter et al. in (Am J Phys Anthropol 140:700-715, 2009)]. We predicted that this switch to a relatively low-quality diet would prompt an increase in feeding effort and decrease in moving effort. We found that the monkeys spent significantly more time feeding in winter than in the other seasons. The monthly time devoted to feeding was also negatively correlated with temperature and positively with percentage of lichens in the diet. Time spent on moving did not vary among seasons or with temperature, but day-journey length was found to be longer on hotter days. Time spent resting was lower in winter and under colder conditions and was also negatively correlated with time spent feeding, indicating that resting time is converted into feeding time during times of ecological stress. These results indicate a strong effect of seasonality on time allocation patterns, constraints on inactivity phases, and the prevalence of an energy-conserving foraging strategy in winter, when costs of thermoregulation were high and the availability of preferred food was low.

Impact of Snow Storms on Habitat and Death of Yunnan Snub-Nosed Monkeys in the Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China

Natural disasters such as snow storms have far-reaching effects on variations in the habitat structure and ecological aspects of non-human primates. Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) inhabit high-altitude forest and endure harsh winters. The effect of heavy snow-storms (January 19 to February 6, 2008) on two large groups of R. bieti (Gehuaqing group and Xiangguqing group) inhabiting Samage Forest in the Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve were assessed. Data on habitat damage were collected between March and May 2008 via field line sampling. The snow storms destroyed 237 big trees in the Samage Forest. The destroyed trees were mostly located along the mountain ridge and valley including Abies georgei, Tsuga dumosa, Pinus yunnanensis and Cyclobalanopsis oxyodon. These trees were important for R. bieti as they provide a dietary source of lichen that is a critical winter fallback food for this primate species, and consequently food availability for R. bieti was reduced. Our results also showed that two juveniles in the Gehuaqing group and three juveniles in the Xiangguqing group were found deceased following the storms. The fact indicates that R. bieti is well adapted to high altitude and strongly seasonal habitat might explain its resilience to heavy snow storms.

Seasonality of reproduction of wild black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Mt. Lasha, Yunnan, China

Black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) inhabit one of the harshest habitats by any nonhuman primate. Reliable predictive cues to initiate reproduction may be particularly critical for R. bieti because they inhabit such seasonally energetically challenging environments. To better understand the seasonal distribution of and predictive cues to reproduction, we collected breeding and birth data in a population of R. bieti at Mt. Lasha in Yunling Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China, from January 2008 to May 2010, using a combination of 10-min instantaneous scans and ad libitum observations. We examined variations in temperature, rainfall, and food availability, as well as photoperiod differences between Mt. Lasha and the more northerly Xiaochangdu to identify environmental influences on the timing of reproductive events. Our data show the area exhibited distinct seasonal fluctuations in rainfall, temperature, and food availability. Mating occurred year-round, but peaked in August, coinciding with the end of the period of highest temperatures and food availability, and during the peak rainfall. Copulation frequency peaked 1 month after corresponding peaks in staple foods, rainfall, and minimum temperatures, and 3-4 months after peaks in high-quality foods. Births were significantly seasonal, with a birth peak from mid-February to early April, and a mean birth date of 14 March. Eleven births occurred in 41 days in 2009, and 16 births occurred in 52 days in 2010. Births occurred during periods of increasing temperatures and food availability. Our findings are suggestive of at least one environmental control of conception timing, and support the notion that food availability during key reproductive stages is an ultimate factor for birth seasonality, but provide no supporting evidence for photoperiod during the conception season as a proximate cue to reproduction in R. bieti.

Fission–Fusion Behavior in Yunnan Snub-Nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) in Yunnan, China

Several species of mammals live in relatively large social groups that temporarily fission or subgroup in response to changes in food availability, predation risk, foraging strategies, and mating competition. Although the dynamics of subgrouping are not well understood, evidence of facultative fission–fusion behavior in species that generally exhibit a highly cohesive group structure may help to clarify the set of ecological and social factors that constrain or affect group size in primates. We here examined patterns of subgrouping in Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) inhabiting the Baimaxueshan National Nature Reserve in Yunnan, China. Rhinopithecus bieti lives in a large multilevel society consisting of 6–41 one-male, multifemale units (OMUs) and one all-male unit (AMU). Over a 5-yr period from 2003 through 2008, we tracked a group of >450 Rhinopithecus bieti. We recorded the location in the group’s home range where fission and fusion events occurred, the size and number of subgroups, days spent in subgroups, and food availability, and monitored predator sightings. The results indicate that the focal group underwent12 group fission events, all of which occurred between mid-June and July, and all in the same area of the group’s range. During these fissioning events, the AMU also showed subgrouping behavior. In all cases, the presence of bamboo shoots, an important seasonal component of the snub-nosed monkey diet, appeared to trigger subgrouping behavior. The subgroups reunited in other parts of their range after a period of 2–11 d. We found no evidence that the presence of predators had a direct affect on subgrouping behavior in Rhinopithecus bieti, as proposed in previous studies.

Maternal responses to dead infants in Yunnan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) in the Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China

How a nonhuman primate mother responds to her dead infant is an indication of maternal behavior and perspectives on death. Here we describe three cases of a mother's response toward her dead infant in Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve in Yunnan, China. The mother, whose infant died at 1month of age, showed strong maternal affection to the corpse and carried it for 4days. A mother with a stillborn infant showed similar maternal behavior to her dead offspring, but only held it for 1day. The mother of an aborted infant abandoned the carcass without carrying it or displaying other forms of maternal behavior. Our results suggest that the mother-infant bond in the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey is strongly influenced by the infants' age. Postdeath infant-carrying behavior could be affected by the combined action of reproductive hormones and the emotional response of the mother. This manuscript represents the first detailed report of a mother carrying her dead infant in this endangered monkey species.

Evidence of allomaternal nursing across one-male units in the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus Bieti).

BackgroundAllomaternal nursing, common in several species of social mammals, also has been reported in nonhuman primates. However, the function of this behavior in enhancing infant survivorship remains poorly understood.Methodology and Principal FindingsThe study was conducted on a free-ranging group of the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) in the Baimaxueshan Natural Reserve. Direct observation and ad libitum sampling were used to record allocare behavior during a 20 month field study. R. bieti exhibits a multilevel social organization in which a large single troop, consisting of over 100 individuals, is divided into many one-male units (OMUs: 6∼41). These OMUs coordinate their daily activities, and feed, forage, travel, and rest together. Here we report on one case of infant temporary adoption in which an adult female from one OMU engaged in allomaternal nursing and cared for an infant from a different OMU of the same troop. This event began when the mother and her five-month-old infant were found to became separated accidentally. The victim infant was observed staying in another OMU. Over the next several days we observed a lactating female in the new OMU to care for and nurse both her infant and the immigrant infant, who also was tolerated by and cared for by the harem male.Conclusions and SignificanceOur findings suggest that lactating primate females are primed to care for young infants and, that the misdirected parental care hypothesis may offer the strongest explanation for allomaternal nursing in R. bieti.

Food Abundance Is the Main Determinant of High-Altitude Range Use in Snub-Nosed Monkeys

High-altitude dwelling primates have to optimize navigating a space that contains both a vertical and horizontal component. Black-and-white or Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) are extreme by primate standards in inhabiting relatively cold subalpine temperate forests at very high altitudes where large seasonal variation in climate and food availability is expected to profoundly modulate their ranging strategies so as to ensure a positive energy balance. A “semi-nomadic” group ofR. bietiwas followed for 20 months in the montane Samage Forest, Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve, Yunnan, PRC, which consisted of evergreen conifers, oaks, and deciduous broadleaf trees. The aim of this study was to disentangle the effects of climate and phenology on patterns of altitudinal range use. Altitude used by the group ranged from a maximum of 3550 m in July 2007 to a minimum of 3060 m in April 2006. The proportional use of lichen, the monkeys’ staple fallback food, in the diet explained more variation in monthly use of altitudes than climatic factors and availability of flush and fruit. The abundance of lichens at high altitudes, the lack of alternative foods in winter, and the need to satisfy the monkey's basal energetic requirements explain the effect of lichenivory on use of altitudes.

Why does Rhinopithecus bieti prefer the highest elevation range in winter? A test of the sunshine hypothesis.

Environmental factors that affect spatiotemporal distribution patterns of animals usually include resource availability, temperature, and the risk of predation. However, they do not explain the counterintuitive preference of high elevation range in winter by the black-and-white snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti). We asked whether variation of sunshine along with elevations is the key driving force. To test this hypothesis, we conducted field surveys to demonstrate that there was a statistically significant pattern of high elevation use during winter. We then asked whether this pattern can be explained by certain environmental factors, namely temperature, sunshine duration and solar radiation. Finally, we concluded with a possible ecological mechanism for this pattern. In this study, we employed GIS technology to quantify solar radiation and sunshine duration across the monkey's range. Our results showed that: 1) R. bieti used the high altitude range between 4100–4400 m in winter although the yearly home range spanned from 3500–4500 m; 2) both solar radiation and sunshine duration increased with elevation while temperature decreased with elevation; 3) within the winter range, the use of range was significantly correlated with solar radiation and sunshine duration; 4) monkeys moved to the areas with high solar radiation and duration following a snowfall, where the snow melts faster and food is exposed earlier. We concluded that sunshine was the main factor that influences selection of high elevation habitat for R. bieti in winter. Since some other endotherms in the area exhibit similar winter distributional patterns, we developed a sunshine hypothesis to explain this phenomenon. In addition, our work also represented a new method of integrating GIS models into traditional field ecology research to study spatiotemporal distribution pattern of wildlife. We suggest that further theoretical and empirical studies are necessary for better understanding of sunshine influence on wildlife range use.

How Human Household Size Affects the Habitat of Black-and-White Snub-Nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) in Hongla Snow Mountain Nature Reserve in Tibet, China

Human impacts on the environment at local or regional scales largely depend on intrinsic characteristics of the population, such as household size, household number, and human population growth. These demographic factors can vary considerably among ethnic groups sharing similar ecological landscapes, yet the role of traditional cultural practices in shaping local environmental impacts is not well known for many parts of the world. We here quantify land-cover changes and their relation to the habitat of the endangered Rhinopithecus bieti in Tibet, in 2 areas populated by different ethnic groups (polyandrous Tibetans and monogamous Naxi) from 1986 to 2006. Results indicate that habitat of the monkey decreased greatly within our study area over the 20-yr period. Polyandrous and monogamous ethnic communities differed in household size, household number, population growth, and per capita and per household land use. The practice of polyandry by ethnic Tibetan appears to have reduced per capita resource consumption by reducing the growth of overall household number and increasing household size, which can mitigate the negative effects of higher human density and population growth on the environment. Ethnic Tibetan may also reduce land impacts by adhering to Buddhist customs and alternative, more sustainable means of livelihood. Accordingly, the protection of traditional cultural resources, such as polyandry and Buddhist beliefs, could be an effective way to aid biodiversity and environmental conservation efforts in this key ecosystem.

Hand preference by black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) in captivity: Influence of tasks and sexes

Task complexity (Fagot & Vauclair 1991), bimanual complementary role differentiation (Uomini 2009), and the obligate use of a particular hemisphere (Rogers, 2009) have been proposed to explain why hand preferences in non-human primates are often influenced by tasks. We examined how tasks (reaching, carrying, extractive foraging, and object manipulation) and gender influenced hand preference in 11 adult black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) out of a total of 13 known adult captive individuals of this species. A logistic regression was used to analyse 2556 bouts of binary left- vs right- hand use data. The explanatory variables are tasks, gender, and the interaction of tasks and gender. Hand preference is influenced by the task, in that subjects used the right hand significantly more often for extractive foraging and object manipulation than for reaching and carrying. We also found a significant interaction of sex and task: males used the left hand significantly more often than females for reaching and carrying, respectively, but not for extractive foraging or object manipulation. This is the first study on hand preference in R. bieti. As predicted, the hand preference in R. bieti is not a fixed property of the species or sexes but depends on the task.

Mitogenomic analysis of Chinese snub-nosed monkeys: Evidence of positive selection in NADH dehydrogenase genes in high-altitude adaptation

Chinese snub-nosed monkeys belong to the genus Rhinopithecus and are limited in distribution to six isolated mountainous areas in the temperate regions of Central and Southwest China. Compared to the other members of the subfamily Colobinae (or leaf-eating monkeys), these endangered primates are unique in being adapted to a high altitude environment and display a remarkable ability to tolerate low temperatures and hypoxia. They thus offer an interesting organismal model of adaptation to extreme environmental stress. Mitochondria generate energy by oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and play important roles in oxygen usage and energy metabolism. We analyzed the mitochondrial genomes of two Chinese snub-nosed monkey species and eight other colobines in the first attempt to understand the genetic basis of high altitude adaptation in non-human primates. We found significant evidence of positive selection in one Chinese snub-nosed monkey, Rhinopithecus roxellana, which is suggestive of adaptive change related to high altitude and cold weather stress. In addition, our study identified two potentially important adaptive amino acid residues (533 and 3307) in the NADH2 and NADH6 genes, respectively. Surprisingly, no evidence for positive selection was found in Rhinopithecus bieti (the other Chinese snub-nosed monkey analyzed). This finding is intriguing, especially considering that R. bieti inhabits a higher altitudinal distribution than R. roxellana. We hypothesize that a different adaptive genetic basis to high altitude survival exists in R. bieti from those seen in other mammals, and that positive selection and functionally associated mutations in this species may be detected in nuclear genes related to energy and oxygen metabolism. More information on the structure, function, and evolution of mitochondrial and nuclear genomes in Chinese snub-nosed monkeys is required to reveal the molecular mechanisms that underlie adaptations to high altitude survival in non-human primates.

Range Expansion as a Response to Increasing Group Size in the Yunnan Snub-Nosed Monkey

The Yunnan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) is characterized by a larger home range and group size than other colobine species. We investigated variations in home range size of a free-ranging group of R. bieti from 1998 to 2007 in the Baimaxueshan National Nature Reserve in Yunnan, China. Group size increased from 160 to 450 over the 10 years. Results also showed a home range shift and yearly home range expansion, although this expansion was very limited. The study group covered a 33.78-km² area during the 10-year period, with some areas abandoned and others used repeatedly. The yearly home range increase stopped in 2004 and decreased thereafter. Despite increasing group size usually being coupled with larger yearly home range (>30 km²), the group confined itself within a relatively small and stable area (<18 km²) during 2005–2007, with a significant portion of their accessible home range discarded. Consequently, the study group showed the highest recorded population density among extant groups of R. bieti. Reasons why the group settled into a substantially smaller home range area remain unclear.

Positive influence of traditional culture and socioeconomic activity on conservation: a case study from the black-and-white snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) in Tibet.

Found in the Trans-Himalayas of north-west Yunnan and south-east Tibet, the black-and-white snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) is one of the world's most endangered primates. A recent survey indicates that only 15 groups with 2500 individuals remain in the wild. However, the Tibetan Xiaochangdu group may be the only equilibrium group in the field since the last investigation in 1988. To evaluate the effects of traditional culture and socioeconomic activity on biodiversity conservation of R. bieti, we conducted a case study in the Honglaxueshan National Nature Reserve in southeast Tibet from June 2003 to May 2005. Interviews, direct observations, and analysis of socioeconomic data indicated major advantages to the conservation of R. bieti, which included that: 1) traditional culture mainly depended on raising livestock and collecting non-timber products rather than forest planting of Tibetan highland barley; 2) religious beliefs, against to kill any wildlife living on the sacred mountain, were mainly influenced by Tibetan Buddhism; and 3) bigger household numbers were induced by the polyandrous marriage system, which resulted in lower per capita resource consumption than smaller ones.

Leaf choice in black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys Rhinopithecus bieti is related to the physical and chemical properties of leaves

Abstract To understand the effects of the chemical and physical properties of plant leaves on food choice in Rhinopithecus bieti, we collected mature leaves of nine food and five non-food plant species at the southernmost part of the species's range. Chemical properties such as fat, ash, crude protein (CP), total phenolics (TP), and fiber content including neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), lignin, celluloses and hemicelluloses, and physical toughness were measured. R. bieti tended to choose leaves with lower fiber content, higher ash, a higher ratio of CP/ADF, and lower toughness. No difference was found for fat, crude protein, total phenolics, hemicelluloses and lignin between food and non-food leaves. Even though the ratio of CP/ADF is generally regarded as a good indicator for colobine food choice, the difference in the ratio of CP/ADF between food and non-food leaves was only the result of differences in ADF. Since positive correlations were found between ADF and toughness from all leaves (both food and non-food species), and toughness of leaves was likely easier for R. bieti to sense than fiber content via mastication, the toughness of leaves may function as a predictor of food choice in this species.

Activity budget of Rhinopithecus bieti at Tibet: Effects of day length, temperature and food availability

Abstract How animals allocate their time to various activities has significant consequences for their survival because they reflect the different constraints on time-energy balances. Many ecological variables, such as day length, temperature, food availability, are supposed to effect on activity budgets allocation of temperate primates. To examine the potential influence of these three variables, the activity budgets of Rhinopithecus bieti was studied at Xiaochangdu, Tibet from June 2003 to March 2005. Pearson correlations were utilized to assess potential relationships between activity budget and day length, food availability and temperature, and stepwise multiple regressions to identify the priority of resting and other activities (activities besides feeding, moving and resting). Time spent resting and doing "other activities" is positively related to day length, temperature and food availability. No significant correlations were found between feeding/moving time and any of these variables. This suggests that foraging time (feeding + moving) takes priority over rest and other activities. Day length and foraging time (as independent variables) were related to the time spent in the other two activities besides feeding/moving (as dependent variables). Both time spent resting and in "other activities" were highly significant positive functions of day length, with the latter a highly significant negative function of feeding time and moving time. Resting time may therefore be interpreted as taking priority over "other activities" time. These results provide further evidence of the importance of day length, temperature and food availability to seasonal activity budgets .

Habitat selection of black‐and‐white snub‐nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) in Tibet: implications for species conservation

As anthropogenic habitat changes are often considered a threat to natural ecosystems and wildlife, a sound understanding of the effects of habitat alteration on endangered species is crucial when designing management strategies or performing conservation activities. Black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) are categorized as endangered on the IUCN Red List and are endemic to the trans-Himalayas in China. At present, there are only 15 groups and 2,500 individuals remaining in the wild, and they are facing intense habitat degradation with selective logging for house building and firewood. Habitat deterioration through wood extraction is occurring at Xiaochangdu, Tibet, where one stable group of R. bieti lives in a marginal habitat in the northernmost part of the species' distribution. To understand the species' response to selective logging in an extremely marginal habitat, data on habitat preference and diet composition of a group of R. bieti were collected at Xiaochangdu from 2003 to 2005. The monkeys used different habitats nonrandomly during the year. The selection index for secondary conifer forest (SC), where selective logging has occurred, was the highest of all habitat types (>1), suggesting that the groups strongly preferred SC. The monkeys fed more on buds/leaves, more on flowers/fruit/seeds, and less on lichen in SC than in primary conifer forest (PC). Dietary diversity was significantly higher in SC than in PC. These results indicate that over the short term, low-intensity disturbances may result in increased foliage diversity that enable groups of R. bieti to survive in this marginal habitat.

Nocturnal sleeping habits of the Yunnan snub‐nosed monkey in Xiangguqing, China

Weather, predation, and social organization are hypothesized to influence sleeping habits of nonhuman primates at night. To investigate how the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) prepares for and behaves during cold nights in their harsh alpine forest habitat (above 3,000 m), we studied the sleeping habits of the 171 one-male units (OMU) in one group for 12 months at Xiangguqing in the Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve, China. It took 20.2 min from the time the study group entered a sleeping site until they fell asleep. This duration was consistent over seasons. On average, sleeping time was 11.5 hr per night over the year. Seasonal mean lengths of sleeping time varied significantly, however, and ranged from 10 to 13 hr per night, correlating with night length. Two sleeping styles were distinguishable: solitary sleeping and huddled sleeping. That adult males in OMUs principally slept alone. This is likely to reflect night-time guarding behavior. Female-juvenile and female-infant dyadic huddles were the most prevalent sleeping unit (42% of all observed data), and the monkeys employed female-biased huddling during nocturnal sleep. Huddled sleeping group size showed significant seasonal variation, with the largest huddle (eight individuals) occurring in winter. Climate and social organization profoundly influence the nocturnal sleeping habits of R. bieti, while huddling behavior may help shield animals from cold nights and provide additional protection against predators.

Niche partitioning between sympatric rhesus macaques and Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys at Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve, China.

Here we provide a preliminary assessment of dietary and habitat requirements of two sympatric primate taxa, a "simple-stomached" and "complex-stomached" species (Rhinopithecus bieti Colobinae vs. Macaca mulatta Cercopithecinae), as a basis for illuminating how the two coexist. Of ca. 22 plant food species consumed by the macaques, at least 16 were also eaten by the snub-nosed monkeys. Both species showed a preference for fruits. While the snub-nosed monkeys did not utilize any resources associated with human communities, rhesus macaques did occasionally raid agricultural crops. The mean elevation of the snub-nosed monkey group was 3,218 m, while the mean elevation of the macaque group was 2,995 m. Macaques were also spotted on meadows whereas snub-nosed monkeys evidently avoided these. For both species, mixed deciduous broadleaf/conifer forest was the most frequently used ecotype, but whereas evergreen broadleaf forest (Cyclobalanopsis community) accounted for only 3% of the location records of the snub-nosed monkeys, it accounted for 36% of the location records of the macaques. Groups of the two species usually kept a considerable spatial distance from one another (mean 2.4 km). One close encounter and confrontation between groups of the two species resulted in the macaque group moving away. Our findings suggest that the coexistence of the two taxa is facilitated via differential macrohabitat use and spatial avoidance. Although divergent habitat-use strategies may reflect interspecific competition, they may also merely reflect different physiological or ecological requirements.

Study of fecal bacterial diversity in Yunnan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) using phylogenetic analysis of cloned 16S rRNA gene sequences

The bacterial diversity in fecal samples from Yunnan snub-nosed monkey ( Rhinopithecus bieti ) was investigated by constructed 16S rRNA gene clone library and restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. As a result, a total of 156 representative clones for each profile, comprising nearly full length sequences (with a mean length of 1.5 kb) were sequenced and submitted to an on-line similarity search and neighbor-joining phylogenetic analysis. Using the criterion of 97%, these 16S rRNA gene sequences were binned in 129 OTUs. 11 sequences whose similarity is 97% were affiliated to the cultured bacteria and accounted for 7.05% of the total clones. For 23 sequences (14.74%), the similarity with the database was in the range of 89 - 97%. The remaining 122 sequences (78.21%) were uncultured and unidentified bacteria. Based on the phylogenetic analysis, the fecal bacteria of R. bieti distributed mainly in 6 bacteriophyta of Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Fibrobacteres, Spirochaetes and Actinobacteria , and belonged to 17 genera. Besides, there were a large number of uncultured and unidentified bacteria. These results illustrate the fecal bacteria diversity of R. bieti. Key Words : Rhinopithecus bieti, fecal bacterial diversity, 16S rRNA gene, phylogenetic analysis.

RetractedFood habits of Rhinopithecus bieti as assessed by fecal analysis at Mt. Longma, Southwest China

The food habits of Rhinopithecus bieti were studied at Mt. Longma in Tianchi Nature Reserve, Yunnan Province, China using microhistological analysis of feces and phytochemical component analysis of food items, from January 2007 to March 2008. This region is the southernmost location of R. bieti with the most complex and varied vegetation types. R. bieti fed on 83 plant species of 26 families, at least 3 species of lichens and bamboos, respectively. The number of food items exploited varied markedly among seasons, with dietary diversity being greatest in summer and autumn. Young leaves of broadleaf plant, monocotyledonous plant leaves (bamboos), and 3 species of lichens in the genera Bryoria (Bryoria confuse) and Usnea (Unsea longissima and Unsea florida) were frequently eaten. Bamboos (Poaceae) and lichens formed a stable dietary constituent throughout the year, contributing about 24 and 13%, respectively, of the total feeding records. There was seasonal variation in the proportion of each food type in the diet of the R. bieti. Results of the phytochemistry analysis showed that food selectivity of R. bieti was positively correlated with the ratio of crude protein to neutral detergent fibre (CP/NDF) and negatively correlated with condensed tannins (CT). Results from the study also showed that the primary food items eaten by R. bieti in summer had higher CP and lower CT than in winter.