Young Learners Research Articles

Vocabulary acquisition is a critical component of English language instruction at the primary school level, as it serves as the foundation for mastering English as a foreign language. Young learners, typically in the early stages of cognitive and linguistic development, are particularly receptive to acquiring new languages, including English. Despite this potential, English teaching in primary schools often falls short of expectations, with teachers predominantly relying on traditional lecture-based methods. Such approaches fail to align with principles of effective pedagogy and do not fully develop students' potential. To address this issue, this study focuses on the design and development of the "English Vocabulary Dominoes Card" as an instructional tool for teaching English vocabulary to primary school students. Employing a Research and Development (R&D) methodology, the study follows the ADDIE model (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation) as its framework. The findings indicate that the English Vocabulary Dominoes Card, as a form of flashcard-based media, is highly effective, valid, and engaging, significantly enhancing vocabulary retention among primary school learners. The media garnered highly positive feedback in terms of ease of use, visual appeal, engagement, and its contribution to memory retention, with an overall average score of 91.60%. Moreover, the ADDIE framework proves to be highly effective in designing vocabulary dominoes card specifically tailored for primary learners, promoting both engagement and retention. This study adds to the growing body of evidence supporting the English Vocabulary Dominoes Card as an innovative and dependable tool for enhancing vocabulary acquisition in primary language learning.

ABSTRACT Background Computational thinking (CT) is an essential skill for preparing the younger generation to succeed in an AI‐driven world, with pair programming emerging as a widely used approach to foster these skills. However, the role of individual factors and mutual engagement in shaping CT skills within pair programming remains underexplored, particularly in middle school contexts. Objectives This study investigates how individuals' attitudes towards programming and collaboration, as well as individuals' prior computer and programming experience, influence CT skills in pair programming. Given the collaborative nature of pair programming, this research extends beyond individual outcomes to explore the mutual influence between partners, examining how these factors shape both individual and partner CT skills. Additionally, it evaluates mutual engagement as a moderator of these relationships. Methods Eighty‐four eighth‐grade students participated in pair programming sessions using P5.js, a creative coding platform. Through the Actor‐Partner Interdependence Model and dyadic data analysis, we evaluated the actor and partner effects of each individual factor and their interactions with mutual engagement. Results and Conclusions Students' CT scores were positively associated with their attitudes towards programming and collaboration, but not with prior computer or programming experience. Their attitudes towards collaboration and programming frequency also positively influenced partners' CT performance. Mutual engagement moderates the actor effect of prior experience and the partner effect of social value (a subcomponent of attitudes towards programming) on CT performance. These findings enhance understanding of the social and cognitive dynamics in pair programming and provide actionable insights for designing activities that foster CT among young learners.

Learner engagement in comprehension-based and production-based tasks: Insights from young learners through an ecological perspective

A novel pedagogical approach was investigated to simultaneously enhance English language proficiency and executive function in kindergarten children. A synergistic curriculum, titled "Beyond Cliche," was implemented, wherein challenging language instruction was intentionally alternated with engaging, game-like cognitive tasks. A pre-test and post-test intervention design involving 37 kindergarten children was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of this dual approach. The quantitative results demonstrated significant program effectiveness in linguistic domains, as determined by paired samples t-tests. Marked improvement was observed in both vocabulary knowledge and the correct application of Subject-Verb Agreement (SVA) rules following program participation. The hypothesized link between cognitive skills and learning acquisition was substantiated through Pearson correlation analysis. A strong association was identified between cognitive efficiency, measured by quick and proficient completion of cognitive control tasks, and the magnitude of gains in English grammar (SVA). The mechanism supporting the program's success was illuminated by qualitative feedback, which reported participant enjoyment and appreciation for the cognitive games. These activities served as a welcome, interesting break from more demanding language practice. Sustained engagement was deemed critical to the observed academic gains. The conclusion is drawn that blending language instruction with dedicated cognitive exercises creates a resilient and supportive learning environment, confirming that enhanced core thinking skills are intrinsically linked to accelerating language acquisition in young learners.

Sixth graders’ reading comprehension: English for young learners proficiency analysis and implication

Developmental effects of digitally contextualized reading on preschooler's creative thinking: A quasi-experimental study.

This study examines how language skills impact the oral reading abilities of the learners. It underscores the critical role of early language development in fostering literacy. The study investigates the relationships between listening, speaking, vocabulary, and comprehension skills and their influence on reading fluency and accuracy. Various data collection methods were employed, including assessments, reading evaluations, and teacher observations. The sample consisted of 30 purposively selected parents of Grade One students. Data were analyzed using frequency, percentage, weighted mean, and Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r). The findings revealed that learners with stronger language skills generally demonstrated better oral reading abilities, emphasizing the strong link between language development and literacy. Conversely, deficits in vocabulary and comprehension were found to impede reading performance. The study highlights the need for targeted language development interventions to promote early reading success. It recommends incorporating language enrichment activities into the curriculum and offering specific support for students who require additional assistance. By exploring the connection between language skills and reading proficiency, the research provides valuable insights for educators, curriculum designers, and policymakers focused on improving literacy outcomes for young learners.

This study is an ontological inquiry of the digital in early childhood education, focusing on Yuk Hui’s Philosophy of Technology. For this purpose, five early childhood education experts were selected through purposive sampling, and two focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted between August and September 2024. The results were categorized into three themes: “The child’s worlding-with the digital,” “The now-here body of the child sensing the digital” and “The child’s learning emerging within the digitally associated milieu.” The specific details are as follows. First, in a rapidly changing era, the relationship between the digital and humans was intertwined, and children's lives were moving toward a state of worlding-with the digital. Second, by confronting the meanings obscured by the discourse of future education, the study highlighted the need of paying attention to the child‘s sensing body and the new fields generated through this experience. Third, through teachers’ ethical practices of listening to children’s learning as they play and associate with the digital, it showed the potential for educational environments―co-figured by young learners and digital objects―to expand into horizontal networks. This study provides academic and practical implications for exploring new educational directions by re-examining the digital as the material that is already entangled in early childhood education field and by deeply reflecting on the relationship between children and the digital based on this ontological perspective.

Pupil engagement is a key factor in creating a practical and interactive learning environment, especially among younger learners who may struggle to maintain focus during traditional classroom discussions. This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of using alternative response cards in enhancing pupil engagement among Grade 4 students during S.Y. 2023–2024 in a public institution in the city of Ozamiz. The study employed a classroom-based action research design and involved 39 Grade 4 pupils selected through purposive sampling. Research-made rubric and checklist were used to gather data. The data was interpreted using statistical tools, mean, standard deviation, and t-test. The following were the key findings of the study: the level of pupils’ engagement in Grade 4 classrooms before the implementation of alternative response cards based on rubric assessment was satisfactory, the level of pupils’ engagement in the Grade 4 classroom after the implementation of alternative response card based on rubric assessment was outstanding, the level of pupils’ engagement in Grade 4 classrooms before the implementation of alternative response cards based on checklist observation was low, the level of pupil engagement in the Grade 4 classroom after the implementation of alternative response card based on checklist observation was high, and there is a highly significant difference in the level of pupil engagement in the Grade 4 classroom before and after the implementation of the alternative response card based on rubric assessment and checklist observation. After using Alternative Response Cards, engagement improved to a high level based on checklist observations, demonstrating increased involvement and interest. Curriculum planners may include interactive and gamified teaching approaches, such as response cards, in instructional guidelines to enhance pupil engagement and motivation across subjects.

This research paper examines the positive effects of a suspension system based on weather forecasts on the student welfare and academic continuity of preschool and elementary school students. As more educational institutions proactively close their buildings due to heavy weather predictions, it is necessary to gather information about the positive outcomes of such activities and develop and adopt a policy. The proposed impact analysis examines how the suspension announcements depend on the predictions made by meteorologists to enhance the safety and educational outcomes of young learners, while also reducing interference in the learning process among learners within the school environment. The analysis will follow a comprehensive methodology to quantify different dimensions of positive change, including the physical safety benefit, psychological well-being benefit, and academic performance sustainability. The data gathered could include attendance records of students, academic research figures, and information on safety incidents that occur during periods of suspension, particularly those related to weather conditions. The paper also assesses that providing advance notice of school closure played a role in helping families secure the proper childcare arrangements, which can help ease stress and anxiety in students and parents. The findings suggest that the suspension, depending on weather predictions, has a significant impact on the well-being of students, as they are not exposed to unsafe travel situations, and the fatality rate among the preschool and elementary age groups is reduced without accidents. Another significant finding highlighted in the study is that a proactive closure policy, coupled with effective communication strategies, contributes to ensuring continuity of education through alternative education opportunities and minimizing the number of years of broken education. For educational policy makers, school administrators, and other stakeholders within the community, this impact analysis can significantly contribute to optimizing student welfare while maintaining academic standards. The research findings support the use of evidence-based guidelines for weather-related suspensions, aimed at safeguarding the safety and learning of young students.

Early childhood education serves as the foundation for lifelong learning, equipping young learners with essential cognitive and socio-emotional skills. This study explores the effectiveness of the Early Language, Literacy, and Numeracy (ELLN) program of instruction in predicting the development of lifelong learning skills among key stage 1 learners in CALABARZON. Employing a mixed-methods approach, data were gathered from 186 teachers and 1,150 learners across various schools, categorized based on the profiles of the teachers and learners in terms of School profile, including location, size, School-Based Management (SBM) level, and learners’ profile, including grade level, sex, and socioeconomic status. Level of implementation of the Early Language, Literacy and Numeracy program of instruction in terms of assessment and evaluation, curriculum and instruction, learning environment, parental and community involvement, professional development, and teaching strategies. Significant differences in the implementation of Early Language, Literacy and Numeracy program of instruction when grouped according to School profile, Level of competency of the key stage 1 learners who undergone the Early Language, Literacy and Numeracy program of instruction in terms of lifelong learning skills such as: communication skills, creativity skills, critical thinking skills, interpersonal relationship skills, problem solving skills, and self-awareness building skills. Significant differences in the level of competency in lifelong learning skills among key stage 1 learners who have undergone the Early Language, Literacy and Numeracy program of instruction, according to learners' profiles. Does the Early Language, Literacy, and Numeracy program of instruction predict the development of lifelong learning skills among key stage 1 learners? Lastly, the researcher proposed the enhanced program of instruction for the Early Language, Literacy, and Numeracy Program. The study assessed dimensions of the Early Language, Literacy, and Numeracy program of instruction, including assessment and evaluation, curriculum instruction, learning environment, parental and community involvement, professional development, and teaching strategies. Findings revealed that overall implementation of the Early Language, Literacy, and Numeracy program of instruction significantly predicts the development of lifelong learning skills. Specific aspects, such as assessment and evaluation, curriculum instruction, learning environment, parental and community involvement, professional development, and teaching strategies, positively contribute to learners' cognitive growth. Learners who participated in the Early Language, Literacy, and Numeracy program demonstrated moderate competency levels. Additionally, the study found no significant differences in lifelong learning competencies across demographic groups. However, it was evident that female learners and those from middle-income families showed stronger engagement in literacy and numeracy activities. Based on these insights, an Enhanced Program of Instruction is proposed, aiming to refine instructional strategies, enhance teacher training, and strengthen school-community partnerships.

This study evaluates the speaking assessment component of the "English on Tuesday" program at Al-Irhaam Elementary School, Bandung, a vocabulary enrichment initiative for primary school students in Grades 1-6. Using the Context, Input, Process, and Product (CIPP) evaluation framework, the research examines how speaking tasks embedded in the program affect young learners' oral proficiency. The context evaluation emphasizes the program's relevance to students' communicative needs and motivation to use English in daily school activities. The input evaluation demonstrates that multimedia materials, vocabulary lists, and simple phrase patterns serve as the foundation for speaking practice, supported by educational videos and interactive digital games. The process evaluation indicates that speaking activities, including sentence construction, role-playing, and oral reporting, promote dynamic and engaging language use among students aged 6-12 years old. The product evaluation reveals significant improvements in students' fluency, confidence, and ability to apply vocabulary in meaningful contexts, as documented through teacher reflection journals, classroom observations, and student speaking samples collected over one academic semester. The findings indicate that integrating structured speaking tasks with vocabulary learning, accompanied by age-appropriate resources and interactive approaches, can considerably improve speaking skills in early English language instruction. This study provides practical insights into developing effective formative speaking assessments for vocabulary-focused programs targeting young learners in Indonesian elementary school contexts.

This study investigates the role of constructivist teaching approaches in developing critical thinking skills among students at Thanh Phu Primary School. Constructivism emphasizes active student engagement, problem-solving, and experiential learning, which are essential for nurturing critical thinking. Through a qualitative case study method, data were collected using classroom observations, teacher interviews, and student work analysis. The findings revealed that when constructivist strategies such as collaborative learning, questioning techniques, and project-based activities were implemented, students demonstrated enhanced reasoning, analytical thinking, and reflective abilities. Teachers played a pivotal role in facilitating discussions and guiding learners to construct their own understanding. However, challenges such as limited resources and time constraints were also identified. This study highlights the effectiveness of constructivist pedagogy in fostering essential 21st-century skills in young learners and provides practical implications for primary school educators.

Gifted students often display advanced verbal abilities that facilitate second language acquisition; however, when instruction is insufficiently stimulating, they may experience boredom and demotivation. Due to rising interest in immersive technologies such as augmented reality (AR) and limited evidence of their impact on gifted language learners, a systematic scoping review was necessary to synthesise existing research and identify gaps. It examined the impact of AR on both linguistic development and motivational outcomes among gifted learners in ESL/EFL contexts. It was preregistered in the Open Science Framework (OSF) and conducted according to PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Eligible studies included gifted learners in ESL/EFL contexts, published between 2020 and 2025 in English, Spanish, French, or Italian. Exclusion criteria comprised non–peer-reviewed papers and studies unrelated to AR. Searches were conducted in Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, and Redalyc. A total of 34 studies were included. Findings indicate that AR interventions improve vocabulary, listening, pronunciation, and fluency; writing also benefits, although grammar remains challenging. AR enhances intrinsic motivation, reduces anxiety, and fosters engagement, especially in younger learners. The results suggest that AR can be a valuable tool in EFL/ESL classrooms to support both linguistic development and motivation among gifted students, though sustainable implementation requires overcoming technological and pedagogical barriers.

This study aimed to investigate the implementation of multimodal tools to teach English in kindergarten. The recent study found that it was challenging to teach English as a foreign language for young learners; so that, teachers should provide various activities and improve creativity in teaching. In contrast, from my general observations, drilling was the only method practiced by the teachers to teach English. Nevertheless, this method was not quite fun and engaging for a long term. As the alternative, to overcome the problem, teacher was able to use multimodality to conduct English lesson especially in kindergarten. This research used qualitative descriptive design. The data were collected by interview with verbatim data technique and observation. The investigation showed that English teacher at RA Nurul Falah used several media and activities. These were audio-visual media; which were laptop, flashcard, speaker active and audio media; which was handphone. Besides that, teacher used some techniques. These were learning while playing; learning through running and other movement; learning with watching videos; learning by using with flash cards and learning ask and answer questions to improve their critical thinking. The study showed that the implementation of multimodality could attract and enhanced students’ engagement in the class. Students seemed more fun with many tools usage rather than only implementing drilling method in the class. Moreover, the research also revealed that multimodal usage was better than drilling. It also concluded that the multimodality use in teaching English lessons was useful and beneficial.

The study of English has been introduced in the school curriculum of Young Learners in order to equip students with the language skills and competences required to become competent active citizens in the global marketplace. The production of teaching materials that scaffold/structure the language learning process is of prime importance in this regard. Coursebooks are perhaps the most used teaching tool in English as a foreign language classrooms in Portugal since they provide a basis for teaching and learning, and guide students throughout the learning process. Thus, this study seeks to determine whether Portuguese teachers prefer to adopt a locally produced English coursebook for young learners, written by local authors with a good knowledge and experience of the Portuguese educational system, or an international coursebook written for a global market. To accomplish this objective, a mixed methods research model with a parallel design was employed as the national and international coursebooks with the highest number of adoptions in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 in Portugal were analysed. The results demonstrated that Portuguese primary teachers favoured English as a foreign language coursebooks produced locally rather than coursebooks produced internationally for a global market.

This research explores the use of song as pedagogical media in vocabulary mastery among young learners. Recognizing the important role of vocabulary in language mastery, this research aims to address the challenges faced by young learners in mastering English vocabulary, especially in a monotonous learning environment. The research focuses on two main aspects: the use of song in vocabulary mastery and teachers' perceptions of this method. Through qualitative research methods, including observations and interviews with English teachers, this research sought to analyze how song can facilitate vocabulary retention and engagement in young learners. This research used the data analysis technique by Miles and Huberman (1984), there were three stages in data analysis: data reduction, data display, and conclusion. The research findings show that song not only make learning fun, but also serve as an effective medium to improve vocabulary mastery. The research highlights the importance of selecting age-appropriate song that match students' interests and the importance of integrating song into the core teaching process rather than using them only as ice-breakers. The research concludes with recommendations for teachers to regularly incorporate song into their lesson plans and suggests future research to further explore the impact of different music genres on language learning. Overall, this research underscores the potential of music as a dynamic tool in fostering a positive learning environment and improving vocabulary mastery among young learners.

Abstract Abstract This introductory article sets the scene for this Special Issue on ‘Children’s Learning Through Digital Technologies’. We begin by outlining key issues in this area: the valuable opportunities such technologies offer children to develop English language and other skills; their limited use in primary English classrooms; the relative scarcity of research into 6- to 14-year-olds’ digital activity which generally focuses on just a few research settings. We then introduce the seven Special Issue contributions that explore children’s digital experiences at home and school, teachers’ perceptions, classroom practices, and teaching strategies. The articles also showcase age-appropriate methods for working with children. Finally, we consider some broader implications and challenges of integrating digital technologies into children’s learning. Our aim is for this Special Issue to encourage practitioners and researchers to consider how digital technologies can be used and studied in their own young learner contexts.

This study examines the impact of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) on the speaking fluency of young English learners at a private language center in Vietnam. Given the central role of fluency in communicative competence, the research addresses the challenge of limited speaking practice among young learners. An eight-week one-group pre-test/post-test design was implemented with 30 participants. Data were collected through a standardized fluency test and a post-study survey on learner perceptions. Results showed a statistically significant improvement in speaking fluency, with higher post-test mean scores and a large effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.8). High inter-rater reliability confirmed the consistency of the fluency assessment. Survey responses further revealed positive learner attitudes toward TBLT, including increased confidence and motivation to speak. These findings suggest that TBLT is an effective pedagogical approach for enhancing young learners’ speaking fluency in the Vietnamese EFL context and offer practical insights for teachers seeking more communicative and engaging classroom methods.

Chatbots and other conversational agents based on speech recognition and processing technologies have been gaining ground in the field of language education. Although previous research has shown that automatic recognition of second language (L2) speech is difficult, little attention has been paid to how L2 teachers and learners interact with such technology when used as an interactional participant in classroom settings. Addressing this gap, this article provides a qualitative analysis of interactional practices of unplanned and situated pronunciation instruction as a teacher and 10- to 13-year-old young learners of L2 English complete robot-assisted language learning (RALL) activities in a primary school English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) context in Finland. Drawing on 14 hours of video recordings, we use multimodal conversation analysis (CA) to analyse extended repair sequences that involve interactional problems related to word recognition by a social robot. Through a sequential analysis of selected data extracts, we show how the teacher and learners correct these problems by establishing a corrective focus for providing instruction on and modifying learners’ word-level pronunciation, such as the quality of individual sounds or word stress. From the teacher’s perspective, this consists of drawing learners’ attention to pronunciation details by highlighting sounds in learners’ talk and the robot’s talk, using embodied conduct, and modelling a target-like word pronunciation. Our findings shed light on the interactional organisation of RALL activities and some of the real-life consequences of limitations in speech recognition technologies for L2 teaching and learning interactions with conversational agents. The work conducted by the teacher to convert interactional troubles into meaningful learning opportunities suggests that human agency is needed to optimally guide and mediate language learning interactions with conversational agents based on artificial intelligence (AI) and automatic speech recognition (ASR), as these agents are less capable of showing the kind of interactional and instructional adaptation that is part of human–human interaction.