Soybean Yield Research Articles

Combined effects of zinc oxide nanoparticles and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on soybean yield, oil quality, and biochemical responses under drought stress

Combined effects of zinc oxide nanoparticles and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on soybean yield, oil quality, and biochemical responses under drought stress

Soybean yield estimation and lodging discrimination based on lightweight UAV and point cloud deep learning

Soybean yield estimation and lodging discrimination based on lightweight UAV and point cloud deep learning

Soybean yield response to management practices (4–40 years) and soil health parameters

Soybean yield response to management practices (4–40 years) and soil health parameters

South Korea is the center for the origin and emanation of soybean mosaic virus with Bayesian phylogeographic inference

ABSTRACT Soybean mosaic virus (SMV) is one of the most serious viral pathogens, causing reductions in soybean yield worldwide. Using more than 350 time-stamped SMV coat protein encoding gene sequences from more than a dozen countries and regions in Central Asia, East Asia, North America, South America, and Western Europe, we investigated the phylodynamics of SMV to understand the origin and dispersal of the virus via Bayesian phylogeographic inference. Our analysis revealed that the most recent common SMV ancestor occurred in approximately 1511 (95% credibility interval, 1075–1848) Common Era, and the evolutionary rate of the coat protein gene was 3.751 × 10 −4 substitutions/site/year (95% credibility interval, 2.694 × 10 −4 –4.879 × 10 −4 ). Our results suggest that the SMV population may have originated in South Korea and that South Korea has been the major center for the dissemination of SMV. The virus first began to emigrate from Korea to China in the late 17th century, and it took more than 150 years to spread from South Korea to Japan. However, after the 20th century, SMV spread from South Korea to South America, North America, and Western Europe. Furthermore, our results suggest that the migration history of SMV may be related to important human historical events. IMPORTANCE Soybean mosaic virus (SMV) is a pathogen that severely affects soybean production areas around the world and can cause up to an 86% reduction in soybean yield. This article provides a comprehensive reconstruction of the phylogeographic history of SMV. Our results revealed the geographic origin and migration history of SMV on a global scale and that the migration history of SMV is correlated with human factors. These results have important implications for the sustainable management of soybean production in the field.

The heat is on: scaling improvements in photosynthetic thermal tolerance from the leaf to canopy to predict crop yields in a changing climate.

Crop production must increase to sustain a growing global population, and this challenge is compounded by increased growing season temperatures and extreme heat events that are already causing significant yield losses in staple crops. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop strategies to adapt crops to withstand the impacts of a warmer climate. Temperature-sensitive vegetative processes fundamentally related to yield, like photosynthesis, will be impacted by warming throughout the growing season, thus strategies to enhance their resilience hold promise to future-proof crops for a warmer world. Here, we summarize three major strategies to enhance C3 photosynthesis above the thermal optimum: enhanced rubisco activation, modified photorespiration and increased rates of ribulose bisphosphate regeneration. We highlight recent experimental evidence demonstrating the efficacy of these strategies, and then use a mechanistic modelling approach to predict the benefit of these engineering strategies on leaf-level carbon assimilation and soybean yield at elevated temperatures. Our approach highlights that these three engineering targets, particularly when combined, can enhance photosynthetic rates and yield under both ambient and elevated temperatures. By targeting multiple aspects of photosynthetic metabolism, we can develop crops that are better equipped to withstand the challenges of a warming climate and contribute to future food security.This article is part of the theme issue 'Crops under stress: can we mitigate the impacts of climate change on agriculture and launch the 'Resilience Revolution'?'.

Legacy Effects of Cover Crop on Cash Crop Rhizosphere Microbiota in a No-Till Maize–Soybean Cropping System

Introducing cover crops is a conservation practice that diversifies cropping systems and counteracts the detrimental consequences of simplified cropping systems. However, the legacy effects of cover crops on cash crop rhizosphere microbiota are poorly understood. We investigated the response of cash crop rhizosphere microbiota following 5 years of cover crops (winter rye for maize and a mixture of winter rye, forage turnip, clover, Berseem, and Crimson for soybean) introduced into a long-term maize–soybean rotation. Five years of cover crop integration significantly increased the average soybean yields and marginally increased maize yields between 2018 and 2022. Cover crops had significant effects on soybean rhizosphere microbiota selecting bacterial genera within Actinobacteria and Thaumarchaeota phyla and some potentially pathogenic fungi species. There was no significant effect of cover crops on maize rhizosphere microbiota. Cash crop growth stage had consistent, significant effects on both soybean and maize rhizosphere microbiota and accounted for a higher percentage of variation in the rhizosphere microbiota compared with cover crops. Crop growth stage effects were notably strong at the flowering stage for soybean and the seedling stage for maize. The soybean rhizosphere was enriched with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the flowering stage, whereas the maize rhizosphere recruited a high abundance of plant growth-promoting bacteria in the seedling stage. Cover crops did not significantly improve six selected soil health indicators, with the weak responses linked with cash crop identity. Cover crop legacies may promote beneficial changes in cash crop rhizosphere microbiota, but legacy assessments should account for cash crop identity and growth stage. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2025 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license .

Loss of phytochromobilin synthase activity leads to larger seeds with higher protein content in soybean

Seed weight is an important agronomic trait that is related to seed size and determines yield in soybean (Glycine max). We previously identified a spontaneous soybean mutant with light green leaves called ygl2. Here, we cloned YGL2, which encodes a phytochromobilin (PΦB) synthase involved in synthesizing the chromophore of the photoreceptor phytochrome. The lesion in ygl2 is a 10-bp deletion, causing a frameshift mutation and a premature stop codon that truncates the encoded protein. In contrast to the wild type, ygl2 lacks PΦB synthase activity and function. This appears to promote cell expansion, thus increasing seed weight. Surprisingly, the ygl2 mutant also exhibits excellent traits including early maturity and high protein content. Moreover, under the condition of dense planting (3 cm), the yield of YGL2 mutant was significantly increased. Mutants harboring ygl2 mutations that we generated via gene editing had enlarged seeds with high protein content. Moreover, the expression levels of the photoperiod sensitive genes (E1, FT2a, FT5a) were lower in the ygl2 mutant than in the wild type. Mutating the YGL2 gene resulted in increased biliverdin content and decreased heme content. We determined that Lhcb4, a chlorophyll a/b binding protein in photosystem II, interacts with YGL2 but not with the mutant version of the protein. We thus identified a mutation in a PΦB synthase gene that enhances seed weight in soybean, providing a promising breeding target for this important crop.

Rhizobacteria co-inoculation Methods Improve Grain Yield, Nutrient Absorption and Leaf Gas Exchange in Soybean

Rhizobacteria co-inoculation Methods Improve Grain Yield, Nutrient Absorption and Leaf Gas Exchange in Soybean

Method of Evaluating Soybean Pod Recovery from Moisture Stress

Plant mapping was introduced in soybean, but its illustrative capabilities in stress response are yet to be implemented. Methods to track the soybean physiological response are explained in this note by mapping pods in a coordinate system. A growth chamber study was conducted to measure the specific impact of simulated moisture stress on crop yield and pod development across three stages of crop growth. The treatment growth stages were R2, R3, and R5 (Full Bloom, Beginning Pod, and Beginning Seed, respectively), with two moisture stress durations of 7 and 14 days. A coordinate system was developed to understand soybean pod setting and yield by plotting each unique point on the plant using a set of numerical coordinates. This method summarizes soybean morphology during its vegetative and reproductive growth. Utilizing this method, we found that the growth stages during which moisture stress is experienced and the duration of the stress determined and influenced the location of pods on the soybean plant. The stress level factors impact the yield on the mainstem and branches by pod capacity at different magnitudes. This encoding procedure assists in tracking the location of aborted pods. It protects the yield by retaining pods, thereby leading to a better understanding of the stress experienced by these plants.

Enhancing Soybean Productivity through Spatial Arrangement and Nutrient Management

A field experiment conducted at the Research Farm of Tirhut College of Agriculture, Dholi, during the Kharif season of 2019 investigated the impact of spatial arrangement and nutrient application on soybean productivity. The study employed a factorial randomized block design with three replications, evaluating four crop geometry (30 x10 cm, 45 x5 cm, 45 x 10 cm and 45 x 15 cm) configurations and three fertilizer levels 100 % RDF, 120 % RDF, and 140 % RDF. The investigation revealed significant effects of crop geometry and nutrient levels on soybean growth and yield parameters, including:, Plant height (cm), Plant dry weight (g plant-1), number of pods per plant, Number of seeds per pod, 100 seed weight (g), seed yield (q ha-1), straw yield (q ha-1) and harvest index (%).Plant height, number of pods per plant, plant dry weight, total and effective number of root nodules, dry weight of root nodules, maximum harvest index, number of seeds per pod with maximum seed yield (21.19 q ha-1), and straw yield (26.30 q ha-1) were all highest among crop geometry treatments for crop geometry P2 (45 x 5 cm). Crop geometry P3 (45 x 10 cm) recorded the highest test weight, while crop geometry P4 (45 x 15 cm) had the lowest seed yield (17.84 q ha-1).Out of all the nutrient level treatments, F3-140% RDF (NPK) had the highest plant height, plant dry weight, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, 100 seed weight (8.59 g), seed yield (20.02 q ha-1), straw yield (25.45 q ha-1), and harvest index (44.29%). This treatment was found to be significantly better than the others. The treatment F2-120 percent RDF had the highest nodule count per plant (25.09), nodule dry weight (33.79 g plant-1), and nodule effective dry weight (28.80 g plant-1). Thus, crop shape P2-45 x 15 cm with fertility level F2-120 % RDF was determined to be appropriate for the best soybean production.

The usage of imidazolinone-tolerant maize in maize-soybean strip intercropping greatly facilitates weed control

The strip intercropping system is one of the important production strategy for maize and soybean. However, it faces significant yield losses due to the lack of safe and effective postemergence herbicides compatible with both crops. In this context, the introduction of imidazolinone-tolerant maize presents a potential solution, yet the associated crop traits, yield outcomes, herbicidal efficacy, and economic impacts have not been thoroughly evaluated. Therefore, this study systematically compares two weed control strategies in maize-soybean strip intercropping system: non-segregated weeding (NSW), which uses imidazolinone-tolerant maize to allow for shared herbicide application, and segregated weeding (SW), which employs a dual-system sprayer for separate herbicide treatments for maize and soybean. A control group with no weed control (NW) was also included to compare the results across treatments. Our results revealed that the differences in plant height and stem diameter between maize and soybean were not significant between NSW and SW, though both were substantially lower compared to their respective monocultures. Compared to SW, the NSW treatment increased the leaf area index, total dry matter accumulation, and grain yield of soybean by 33%, 17%, and 79%, respectively. For maize, these parameters were marginally higher but not significant, indicating that the NSW treatment benefited soybean growth and yield more than maize in maize-soybean strip intercropping system. Overall, maize and soybean under SW and NSW achieved land equivalent ratios of 0.96 and 0.99 for maize, and 0.40 and 0.80 for soybean, respectively, suggesting that the NSW strategy provided better weed control and allowed for more efficient land use for both maize and soybean. Specifically, in terms of weed suppression, NSW outperformed SW, with the number and fresh weight of weeds (Gramineae, Broadleaf, Cyperaceous) reduced to 16% and 20% of those in SW, and to 5% and 4% of those in NW, respectively. Moreover, NSW increased weeding speed by fivefold, reduced herbicide and spraying costs by $37.05 USD ha-1, and enhanced net benefits by 58%, reaching $3414.12 USD ha-1. These findings demonstrate that NSW, based on imidazolinone-tolerant maize, offers a more convenient, economical, and efficient weed management strategy for maize-soybean strip intercropping system.

Efficient Virus-Induced Gene Silencing (VIGS) Method for Discovery of Resistance Genes in Soybean.

Soybean (Glycine max L.) is a vital grain and oil crop, serving as a primary source of edible oil, plant-based protein, and livestock feed. Its production is crucial for ensuring global food security. However, soybean yields are severely impacted by various diseases, and the development of disease-resistant cultivars remains the most sustainable strategy for mitigating these losses. While stable genetic transformation is a common approach for studying gene function, virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) offers a rapid and powerful alternative for functional genomics, enabling efficient screening of candidate genes. Nevertheless, the application of VIGS in soybean has been relatively limited. In this study, we established a tobacco rattle virus (TRV)-based VIGS system for soybean, utilizing Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated infection. The TRV vector was delivered through cotyledon nodes, facilitating systemic spread and effective silencing of endogenous genes. Our results demonstrate that this TRV-VIGS system efficiently silences target genes in soybean, inducing significant phenotypic changes with a silencing efficiency ranging from 65% to 95%. Key genes, including phytoene desaturase (GmPDS), the rust resistance gene GmRpp6907, and the defense-related gene GmRPT4, were successfully silenced, confirming the system's robustness. This work establishes a highly efficient TRV-VIGS platform for rapid gene function validation in soybean, providing a valuable tool for future genetic and disease resistance research.

Effects of Short-Term Straw Return and Manure Fertilization on Soil Microorganisms and Soybean Yield in Parent Material of Degraded Black Soil in Northeast China.

Soil erosion has caused the loss of black soil and exposed the soil parent material in the cultivated layer of sloping farmland in Northeast China. Straw return (STR) and manure fertilization (MF) are critical measures to improve soil quality and crop yield. However, the effect of STR and MF on the soil properties of the parent material remains unclear. We conducted a 1-year pot experiment in the field using the soil parent material of degraded black soil to evaluate the effects of STR and MF on soil nutrients, microbial community, and soybean yield. We analyzed these effects using two treatments (STR and MF) in three soybean growth stages (seedling, flowering, and maturity) and a control group (CK). The MF treatment had higher α and β diversity of soil microbial than the CK during all soybean growth stages. Similarly, STR had higher soil microbial α diversity at the maturity stage and lower diversity at the seedling stage. Co-occurrence network analysis suggested that STR and MF increased the proportion of positively correlated edges in soil bacterial and fungal networks compared to the CK. Notably, the treatments enriched beneficial taxa, such as Schizothecium (fungi) and Massilia (bacteria), which are associated with organic matter decomposition and nitrogen cycling. STR and MF significantly improved soil organic matter, total nitrogen, and carbon-nitrogen ratio (p < 0.05). Structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that STR and MF directly increased soybean yield. This effect was primarily mediated by the significantly higher soil organic matter, total carbon, total nitrogen, and carbon-to-nitrogen ratio in the treatments than in the CK (p < 0.05). In summary, STR and MF improved soil fertility and soil microbial community diversity of degraded black soil. This study provides scientific methods to improve the fertility of degraded black soil and increase soybean production in the short term.

GmFER1, a soybean ferritin, enhances tolerance to salt stress and root rot disease and improves soybean yield.

The plant stress response mechanism is activated by biotic and abiotic stresses, but its continuous activation typically affects growth. The role of ferritin in regulating biomass accumulation has been extensively characterized in diverse plant species; however, the underlying mechanisms through which it contributes to salt stress tolerance and Fusarium resistance remain poorly understood. Here, we confirm that overexpression of ferritin leads to iron accumulation and Fe3+ sequestration in both aboveground and roots, activating the iron uptake and transport system. More importantly, GmFER1 enhances salt stress tolerance and Fusarium resistance. First, GmFER1 is localized in chloroplasts and significantly induced by salt stress and Fusarium infection. Overexpression of GmFER1 increases soybean yield per plant by enhancing net photosynthetic rate and Rubisco enzyme activity, without activating the reactive oxygen scavenging mechanism. Under salt stress, GmFER1 enhances resistance by improving the activities of SOD and CAT enzymes, as well as Na+ efflux capacity. Under Fusarium infection, GmFER1 enhances resistance to the pathogen by boosting antioxidant capacity. Moreover, iron-deficiency tests revealed that increased CAT and SOD activities under salt stress are linked to iron ions accumulation. Lastly, we analysed the effects of GmFER1 gene variation on salt tolerance, disease resistance and 23 agronomic traits related to yield and quality. Further analysis of GmFER1 gene variation revealed that the Hap2 haplotypes could potentially enhance salt resistance, disease resistance, pod number and oil content in soybean. Our research offers a new way to reduce growth penalties while boosting plant resistance to salt stress and Fusarium infection.

Effects of rot-promoting bacteria on decomposition characteristics of corn straw and spring soybean yield in Saline-alkali Land.

Understanding the relationship between microbial inoculants and straw decomposition is crucial for achieving a high soybean yield in northern China's cold region. This study investigated the effects of different microbial inoculants on nutrient release characteristics and extracellular enzyme activities. A pot experiment was conducted over two growing seasons (2023 and 2024) using the soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) cultivar Nongqing 28, the saline-alkali soil as the test soil, and corn straw as the test straw. The microbial inoculants tested were Bacillus sp. ND1 and Bacillus sp. ND2. The following treatments were employed: straw with no microbial agent application (CK), straw with Bacillus sp. ND1 application (T1), straw with Bacillus sp. ND2 application (T2), and straw with a 1:1 application of Bacillus sp. ND1 and Bacillus sp. ND2 compound bacteria (T3).The two-year results showed that the T1, T2, and T3 treatments significantly increased the rate of straw decomposition, reduced the lignocellulose content, and progressively released nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium from the straw compared to the CK. During both years, the T3 treatment exhibited the highest straw decomposition rate and enzyme activity at R2(Full Bloom period), R4(Full Pod period), R6(Full Seed period) and R8(Full Maturity period) periods, which ultimately increased soybean yield by 24.00%-28.00% (P<0.05). These findings indicate that microbial inoculants have significant potential for application in straw management and provide an important basis for optimizing straw return and crop yield. In summary, T3 treatment can accelerate straw decomposition and nutrient release rates, increase soybean yield, and provide a theoretical basis for optimizing the straw decomposition effect and rational utilization of organic resources by promoting the activity of extracellular enzymes and the degradation of straw cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin.

Molecular Regulatory Network of Soybean Responses to Abiotic Stress.

Global climate change exacerbates the impact of environmental stressors such as drought, salinity and extreme temperatures on crop growth and grain yield, endangering the sustainability of the food supply. Soybean (Glycine Max [L.] Merr.) is an important legume crop and plays a crucial role in the global food supply chain and food security, and contributes the substantial protein content relative to other crops. However, soybean yield stability is critically dependent on the plant's adaptive responses to abiotic stress factors, particularly drought, salinity and temperature extremes, which primarily impact its growth and productivity. Recently, various molecular techniques, including genetic engineering, transcriptomics, transcription factor analysis, CRISPR/Cas9, and conventional methods, have been employed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of soybean responses to environmental stresses for the breeding of tolerant cultivars of soybean. This review summarises recent advances in dissecting the genetic factors and networks that contribute to soybean abiotic stress tolerance through diverse strategies. We also discuss future challenges and opportunities for the development of climate-resilient soybean varieties. Consequently, the updated review will serve as a comprehensive guideline for researchers investigating the genetic mechanism of abiotic stress in soybean.

Concurrent Response of Soybean to Fixed (Full and Limited) and Variable Rate Irrigation Management in Three Soil Types: II. Growth, Yield, Evapotranspiration and Water Productivity

ABSTRACTSoybean growth, yield, crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and crop water use efficiency (CWUE or crop water productivity, CWP) under different irrigation levels in three different soil types in the same field were investigated concurrently. Treatments in each soil type were: (i) variable rate irrigation (VRI), (ii) fixed rate full irrigation (FR‐1″) and (iii) fixed rate limited irrigation (FR‐0.75″). There was not enough evidence suggesting the superiority of VRI over FRI‐1″ or FRI‐0.75″ in terms of improving yield or CWUE. Leaf area index (LAI) and plant height were stronger functions of soil types than irrigation treatments. Growing season cumulative grass‐reference evapotranspiration (ETo) and cumulative precipitation were 629 and 489 mm, respectively, in 2018; and 589 and 551 mm, respectively, in 2019. Variations in yield among irrigation treatments for both seasons were not significant (p &gt; 0.05). Soil type, rather than irrigation treatments, explained variation in yield with statistical significance (p &lt; 0.05). Soil types had substantial impact on ETc and CWUE. Since spatial variability in soil properties has a profound impact on soybean growth, yield, ETc and CWUE, soil variability in horizontal and vertical domain must be considered for developing accurate management zones and prescriptions for VRI, and for in‐season VRI, FRI and limited irrigation management for successful and effective operations.

Serratia marcescens G4 as a novel biocontrol strain against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum infection in soybean.

Sclerotinia is a soil-borne disease of soybean caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, which seriously endangers the yield and quality of soybean. The purpose of this study was to explore effective biocontrol bacteria for controlling soybean Sclerotinia. In this study, we isolated 32 strains of bacteria from soybean rhizosphere soil. The inhibition rate of strain G4 on Sclerotinia sclerotiorum was the highest (82.27%). Strain G4 was identified as Serratia marcescens by morphological, physiological, biochemical and 16S rDNA sequence analysis. The strain G4 could inhibit the growth of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and change the mycelial morphology. Under the conditions of 5.0 × 105 CFU/mL, pH 7 and 30 °C, the antibacterial rate of strain G4 was the highest, which was 92.10%. After the treatment of strain G4, the content of reducing sugar and soluble protein of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum showed a downward trend, which inhibited its growth. In addition, strain G4 could reduce the activity of cell wall degrading enzymes of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. In vitro and pot experiments showed that Serratia marcescens had an inhibitory effect on Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. After treatment with strain G4, the content of defense-related enzymes and malondialdehyde in plants increased. The results showed that Serratia marcescens G4 isolated from soybean rhizosphere soil was an effective biocontrol strain against soybean Sclerotinia. Serratia marcescens G4 has a strong inhibitory effect on Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and can be used as a biocontrol bacterium to control the infection of soybean Sclerotinia. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

Impact of Sowing Time on Insect Pest Incidence of Soybean, Glycine max (L.) in Kashmir, India

Soybean (Glycine max) is a versatile legume crop crucial for global food security, edible oil production, livestock feed and soil health through crop rotation. The present study investigated the effect of three sowing dates on insect pest incidence as well as on yield of soybean crop. Seven insect pests were found to be associated with the crop belonging to three major insect orders viz., Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci), Aphid (Aphis fabae), Jassid(Apheliona maculosa), and Thrips (Thrips tabaci) from order Hemiptera and two species of Flea beetle (Alticahimensis and Luperomorpha xanthodera) of order Coleoptera, Cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni) of Lepidoptera. The crop sown on the first sowing date (10th June, 2023) had the highest infestation of sucking pests as compared to the other two sowing dates (25th June and 10th July, 2023) and observed that with the delay in sowing of soybean crops the population of sucking pest decreases while highest infestation of defoliators was recorded in crops sown on the third sowing date (10th July, 2023) than soybean crop sown earlier. The study concludes that the sowing time significantly influences the incidence of all documented insect pest, with the exception for the cabbage looper, as well as on the yield of soybean. The maximum grain yield was harvested from the crop sown on 10th of June, 2023 (1145 kg/ha) as these plants exhibited greater bushiness and vitality, characterized by a higher pod than other sowing dates (836.24 kg/ha for crop sown on 25th June and 746.66 kg/ha for crop sown on 10th July, 2023). Furthermore, the present study establishes that there was no significant yield reduction attributed to insect pests, as all recorded pests remained below the economic threshold level.

Launch of the global preharvest crop forecast of climate-induced yield variations

Global preharvest crop forecasting is a field of research that has emerged since the 2010s. Such research is expected to contribute to making globally interconnected agri-food systems more climate resilient. In November 2024, the global preharvest crop forecasting system entered in its operational phase at the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Climate Center (APCC). Using the APCC multi-model ensemble (MME) temperature and precipitation forecasts as main inputs, the system provides monthly information on climate-induced changes in the yields of maize, rice, wheat, and soybean in the ongoing season, 6 to 3 mo before the harvest. This information is a key outcome of the research project jointly conducted by the National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Japan, and APCC, Republic of Korea, for the period 2017-2023. To commemorate this milestone, this Opinion Piece briefly summarizes the global crop forecasting research done by our team and possible avenues for future research to make such forecasts more reliable and widely adopted by societies.